Samuel Phillips Huntington. Samuel Huntington - biography, information, personal life Multipolar, multicivilizational world

Samuel Phillips Huntington. Born April 18, 1927, New York, USA - died December 24, 2008, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, USA. American sociologist and political scientist, author of the concept of ethnocultural division of civilizations, which he promulgated in the article “Clash of Civilizations?” (The Clash of Civilizations?), published in 1993 in Foreign Affairs magazine, and then in 1996 in the book The Clash of Civilizations.

He received a higher education at Yale University, a master's degree at the University of Chicago in 1948, and defended his doctorate at Harvard University, where he taught until the end of his life.

At the beginning of his scientific career, he gained fame primarily as a researcher of civilian control over the armed forces and the theory of modernization. Founder and editor-in-chief of Foreign Policy magazine.

In 1973 he worked as deputy director of the Center for International Relations.

In 1977-1978 - coordinator of the planning department at the US National Security Council.

In 1978-1989 - Director of the Center for International Relations.

Huntington Bibliography(main works):

"The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations" (1957)
"Political Order in Changing Societies" (1968)
"The Third Wave: Democratization at the End of the 20th Century" (1991)
"Clash of Civilizations" (1993)
"Who are we? Challenges to American National Identity" (2004).

Created by Huntington, the concept of "clash of civilizations", describing the dynamics of modern international relations through the prism of conflicts on a civilizational basis.

In his opinion, the only real difference remaining between peoples after the end of the Cold War is cultural identity.

Huntington expressed the opinion that in the near future a confrontation between the Islamic and Western worlds is inevitable, which will resemble the Soviet-American confrontation during the Cold War. These constructions of his gained particular popularity in the West after the tragic events of September 11, 2001.

Another famous theoretical development of Huntington is concept of "waves of democratization".

Amer. political scientist, research analyst, director of the Institute of Strategic Studies. research at Harvard University. Studied at Yale, Chicago, Harvard, Univ. In 1970 he founded the magazine. “Foreign Policy”, until 1977 he was its co-publisher. In 1984 he was elected vice-president, and in 1985 - president of America. associations of political sciences. X.’s works - “Politics, order in changing societies” (1968), “Crisis of democracy” (1975) marked the beginning of the “neoconservative wave” of the middle. 70-80s, exposed the dangers arising from the imbalance between ruling institutions and opposition forces and emphasized the importance of preserving the foundations and traditions of politics. culture from the pressure of extremist movements.

Of particular interest are studies of civilizational processes. X. gives preference to the civilizational approach, offering a new paradigm for theory. analysis and forecasting of the world order at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. He believes that the division of the world during the Cold War into the countries of the “first” (West), “second” (socialist camp) and “third” world no longer corresponds to reality, and now it is much more reasonable to group countries based not on their political , or econ. systems, or taking into account the level of their economy. development, but with a view their cultures and civilizations. X. considers civilization as the highest cultural formation that unites people and provides them with def. degree of cultural identity. Civilization is defined as the common objective elements, such as language, history, religion, customs, societies. institutions, and the subjective self-identification of people. Civilizational identity, according to X., will play an increasingly important role in the future, and the world will be shaped, and therefore to a degree, under the influence of the interaction of seven or eight chapters. civilizations - Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islam, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Lat.-Amer. and possibly African. And the largest and therefore most consequential conflicts of the future will occur on a kind of cultural border separating these civilizations. The end of the Cold War meant the end of political ideals. division of Europe, but a cultural division between Western countries reappeared. Christianity, on the one hand, and Orthodoxy and Islam, on the other. The “Velvet Curtain” of culture, which replaced the “Iron Curtain” of ideology, may turn out to be not only a border separating different cultures and civilizations, but also, as events in Yugoslavia showed, a line of bloody conflicts. The confrontation between Western and Islamic civilizations have been going on for 1300 years - from the Arabs. conquests before the Persian War. Gulf: it is unlikely that it will decline, but rather will become more dangerous and violent, which is facilitated by demogr. processes. Population growth in Arab. countries, especially in the North. Africa, led to an increase in the migration flow to the West. Europe, resulting in increasingly intense and frequent manifestations of racism in Italy, France and Germany since 1990.

Histor. The clash between Muslims and Hindus in the subcontinent manifests itself not only in the confrontation between Pakistan and India, but also in religions. discord within the latter between Hindus and the Muslim minority. Cruelty and violence are characteristic of relations between Muslims and Jews in Israel and Serbs in the Balkans. Islam, X. believes, has “bloody borders.” The confrontation between civilizations is intensifying. The situation is especially “explosive” in countries inhabited by a large number of peoples who consider themselves to be different civilizations, cultures, ethnic groups, as well as those in which, despite a high degree of cultural

homogeneity, there are very sharp disagreements on the question of which civilization their communities belong to. X. includes, in particular, Russia among the latter. According to X., if Russians, having rejected Marxism, and after it liberal democracy, begin to behave like Russians, that is, in accordance with their personalities. interests, then relations between Russia and the West may again become “cool” and conflictual.

Analyzing the current situation in the world, X. notes that the opinion, according to Krom, is modernization and economics. development contribute to strengthening homogeneity and give rise to a common modern. culture turned out to be incorrect: on the contrary, as local traditions asserted themselves, Western. the crop is eroded. Behind the decline of the west. power will follow and the retreat of the West. culture. All this will require the West not only to maintain the economy. and military power at the level necessary to protect his interests from the “encroachments” of other civilizations, but will also push him to a deeper understanding of their religions. and philosopher foundations and those areas in which the peoples of these civilizations see their interests. In these conditions, the search for ways to coexistence is especially relevant. civilizations, identifying elements of Western commonality. and other civilizations. He believes that in the foreseeable future a single universal civilization will not arise; on the contrary, their clash will intensify. The growth of conflict in relations between civilizations reflects the deep processes occurring in the economy. and cultural spheres. Economy processes modernization and social change are tearing people away from their roots, while weakening the nation. the state as an important source of self-identification. In many parts of the world, religion is trying to make up for this loss of identity, often in the form of “fundamentalist” movements. Revival of religions. feelings creates the basis for preserving originality in the form of joint involvement in a community. civilization, but sometimes this is accompanied by a hostile attitude towards representatives of other cultures. The differences that exist between civilizations in history. experience, language, culture, religion, traditions, have deep roots. They are more significant than the differences between ideologies and political regimes, and do not necessarily develop into conflicts, but if this happens, it is the civilizational differences that give them a fierce and protracted character. Differences of a cultural nature, as opposed to economic. and political, are least susceptible to change. X. notes the tendency to return to the origins of the national. being in sudden countries, which is manifested in the “Asianization” of Japan, the “Hinduization” of India, the “re-Islamization” Cf. East after the collapse of the West. ideas of socialism and liberalism. The West is increasingly faced with confrontation between these countries, which are striving to build life according to their own, and not Western, recipes. This is also facilitated by the “nativeization” of local elites, who in the past, while receiving education at Oxford or the Sorbonne, were Ch. conductors zap. influence.

Works: American Politics: the Promise of Disharmony. Cambridge (Mass.); L., 1981; The Third Wave. Democratization in the late twentieth century. Norman; London, 1991; The Clash of Civilizations? // Foreign Affairs. 1993. V. 72. No. 3; If not Civilizations, What?: Paradigms of the Post-Cold War World//Ibid. No. 5.

T.M. Fadeeva

*****************************************************

HARRIS Marvin (b. 1927) - Amer. cultural anthropologist, prof. Columbia University, 1963-66 headed the department of anthropology at the university. He gave lectures at most colleges and universities in the USA. Conducted field research in Mozambique, Brazil, Ecuador and India. Known for his work in the field of ethnography, ethnology and cultural theory, following. areas: race relations in Brazil; cultural ecology; econ. anthropology; history theory thoughts in anthropology, etc. Basic methodol. X.'s approach in scientific literature (including in domestic literature) is equated to cultural determinism and is often compared with Marxism. X. determines his research. strategy as cultural materialism. From his point of view. cultural materialism links ecology into a single whole. and sociocultural direction in anthropology.

X. is based on materialism. explanation of social reality. His theory is based on a study of the relationship between demographics. pressure on the natural environment and its reaction in def. sociocultural systems. Based on physical the essence of man (needs for food, etc.) reveals four universal levels of man. organizations: I) infrastructure of production and reproduction (of humans); 2) the structure of household and watering, economy; 3) superstructure of social relations; 4) mental (intellectual) or emic superstructure. Each of these levels is a determinant for the next one. In practice, theory X. is a variant of ecology. determinism. X. argues environmentally. nature to find out the reasons for the emergence of food bans, various taboos and cannibalism, which, according to the prevailing anthropopol. traditions were interpreted as a result of religions. practices. X. believed that the cultural evolution of man occurs within the framework of a channel, the boundaries of which are determined by cultural and environmental factors. conditions, while the modes of production determine the nature of the channel.

X. was not formally a student of L. White, but in fact develops problems that are central to the cultural-evolutionary direction in US cultural anthropology.

Works: The Rise of Anthropological Theory. N.Y., 1968; Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches: The Riddles of Culture. N.Y., 1974; Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture. N.Y., 1980; America Now: The Anthropology of a Changing Culture. N.Y., 1981; Cultural Anthropology. N.Y., etc., 1983.

HUNTINGTON, PHILLIPS SAMUEL(Huntington, Samuel P.) (1927-2008) - American political scientist, creator of the geopolitical concept of the “clash of civilizations.”

He received a good education, studying political philosophy. In 1946 he received a bachelor's degree from Yale University, and in 1948 a master's degree from the University of Chicago. Served in the army. In 1951 he received his PhD from Harvard University.

Huntington's biography is typical of modern highly qualified Western intellectuals who combine teaching, scientific work, government activities and management of scientific centers.

From 1950 to 1958 he taught at Harvard, then from 1959 to 1962 he worked as deputy director of the Institute for the Study of War and Peace at Columbia University. During this period, his first monograph was published, which caused very mixed reviews - The soldier and the state: theory and practice of relations between civil authorities and the military (The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations, 1957).

Having established himself as a qualified theoretician, Huntington began to actively work in the US government apparatus. From 1967–1969 and 1970–1971 he chaired the Department of Political Science at Harvard University.

During this period, his monograph became very famous Political order in changing societies (Political Order in Changing Societies, 1968), which became one of the classic works devoted to the analysis of political systems of developing countries. In an effort to consolidate the community of American political scientists, he founded the journal Foreign Policy in 1970. Until 1977, Huntington was co-editor of the journal, which became one of the world's most authoritative political science publications.

In 1973 he worked as deputy director of the Center for International Relations; in 1977–1978 – coordinator of the planning department at the US National Security Council; in 1978–1989 – director of the Center for International Relations.

Since 1989, Huntington has returned to primarily scientific and administrative work, taking up the post of director of the Institute for Strategic Studies. John Olin at Harvard University. Since 1996 he has headed the Harvard Academy of International and Regional Studies.

His main interests include issues of national security, strategy, relations between the civilian population and the military, problems of democratization and economic development of developing countries, cultural factors in world politics, problems of American national identity.

Among political scientists of the 21st century. Huntington is known primarily as the author of the concept of the “clash of civilizations,” which polemicizes the concept of the “end of history” by F. Fukuyama. Huntington first outlined his view on geopolitical socio-political problems in 1993 in an article Clash of civilizations? Published in Foreign Policy, it caused a worldwide stir and became the basis for a book The Clash of Civilizations and the Rethinking of World Order (The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, 1996), which became a global scientific bestseller.

If Fukuyama proposed to consider the main factor determining modern world politics as the complete victory of liberal ideology, Huntington considered this approach to be overly optimistic. In his opinion, at the end of the 20th century. The geopolitical balance of power is determined by ideologies that go beyond the traditional opposition between liberalism and authoritarianism. The main opposing forces are civilizations that unite groups of countries with similar mental values.

Following A. Toynbee, Huntington argues that “human history is the history of civilizations.” According to Huntington, in the modern world there is a clash of 7 or 8 civilizations - Chinese, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic, Orthodox, Western, Latin American and, possibly, African. Within a civilization, there is usually a core country that organizes a unified policy for the entire group of countries with similar cultural norms (such as the United States in modern Western civilization). Every civilization strives to expand its influence or at least maintain its identity from pressure from other civilizations. Instead of the ideological confrontation of the 20th century. In the 21st century, intercultural conflicts will play a major role.

In the 16th - first half of the 20th centuries. the main dominant force was Western civilization, imposing its values ​​on everyone else. However, in the 20th century. The world first becomes bipolar (confrontation between the West and Soviet Russia), and then multipolarity gradually takes shape. Western civilization is gradually losing its leadership, but the independence of the Far Eastern civilizations and the civilization of Islam is growing. In the modern world, the main thing has become the division into “the West and everyone else,” with the most aggressive anti-Western struggle being waged by Islamic civilization. Conflicts are growing along “fault lines” where protracted local wars are taking place (as, for example, in the Middle East). In this new world, the West must abandon claims to the universality of its values ​​and attempts to impose them by force in non-European countries.

After the events of September 11, 2001, Huntington began to be called a “seer” who predicted the escalation of Islamic extremism. Following his concept, he protested against the US invasion of Iraq in 2004, believing that this would only lead to widespread aggravation of relations between the West and the Islamic world.

If in Clash of Civilizations Huntington analyzed intercivilizational conflicts mainly as confrontation between groups of states, then in his monograph Who are we? Challenges to American National Identity (Who Are We? The Challenges to America's National Identity, 2004) he focused on the problems associated with international migration. According to Huntington, flows of migrants from developing countries create enclaves of a different culture in developed Western countries. As a result, a “clash of civilizations” is no longer occurring only between countries, but also within multi-ethnic countries that are in danger of losing their cultural identity. Thus, for the United States, the greatest danger, Huntington believes, is the flow of Latin American migrants, most of whom do not share the basic values ​​of Protestant Anglo-Saxon culture.

Huntington's ideas are very popular not only among social scientists, but also among the general public. This is largely facilitated by the deliberate polemics and popular style of presentation of his scientific works, which often cause a kind of scientific scandals and provoke heated discussions.

Sociology and political science clearly do not belong to the category of exact sciences. It is difficult to find provisions in them that have the status of immutable truths. The reasoning of the most authoritative scientists with such a specialization seems abstract and divorced from the real life of the “little man.” But there are theories on the basis of which the foreign and domestic policies of individual states and global international communities are formed. That is why they become relevant.

Samuel Huntington is an American writer, sociologist and political scientist - the author of many such theories. His books often contained thoughts that at first seemed too radical, but then turned out to be an objective commentary on what was happening.

Childhood and youth

He was born in New York in the spring of 1927, into a family associated with literary activities. His father, Richard Thomas Huntington, was a journalist, his mother, Dorothy Sanborn Phillips, a writer, and his maternal grandfather, John Phillips, a famous publisher. The choice of a profession related to intellectual activity therefore seems natural. Samuel Phillips Huntington became a worthy successor to the family tradition, writing a total of 17 books and more than 90 voluminous scientific articles.

The places chosen for Sam’s education also seem to be standard for families of this level. First, it was Stuyvesant High School in New York, then an undergraduate course at Yale University in New Haven - 1946, then a master's degree in political science at the University of Chicago (1948) and, finally, Harvard, where Samuel Huntington received his PhD in political science in 1951.

The only unusual thing was that he successfully completed the university curriculum in much less time than usual. So, having entered Yale at the age of 16, he graduated not in four years, but in 2.5. A break in his studies was a short-term service in the US Army in 1946, before entering the master's program.

Professor and consultant

After receiving his degree, he went to work as a teacher at his alma mater, Harvard. He worked there intermittently for almost half a century - until 2007. Only from 1959 to 1962 did he serve as deputy director of the Institute for Coverage of War and Peace at another famous American university, Columbia.

There was a period in his life when he came into close contact with current high-level politicians. In 1968, he was a foreign policy consultant to presidential candidate Hubert Humphrey, and from 1977 to 1978, Samuel Huntington served in the administration of President Jimmy Carter as the planning coordinator for the National Security Council. Many presidents and secretaries of state listened carefully to his opinion, and Henry Kissinger considered Huntington his personal friend.

Prolific writer

He devoted all his time free from teaching and social activities to writing books. They are filled with an analysis of the current foreign and domestic policies of the leading countries of the world and a forecast for the development of both regional and global processes. Originality of thinking, enormous erudition and high personal qualities earned him authority and respect among his colleagues. An indicator of this was that leading US political scientists and sociologists elected him to the post of president of the American Political Science Association.

In 1979, he founded the Foreign Policy magazine, which has become one of the most authoritative publications in the field of international relations. It remains so today, published every two months, including the annual “Globalization Index” and “Rating of Failed Governments.”

The book that made the name

The first book that established Huntington's reputation as an original thinker and thoughtful scholar was The Soldier and the State, published in 1957. Theory and politics of civil-military relations." In it, he examined the problem of implementing effective public, civilian control over the armed forces.

Huntington analyzes the moral and social state of the officer corps; he studies the military-historical experience of the past - first worldwide - since the 17th century, then that acquired during armed conflicts in the United States and overseas, where the American Expeditionary Force was sent. The book also reflected the then political situation of the outbreak of the Cold War. The scientist’s conclusion: effective control over the army by society should be based on its professionalization, on the every possible improvement in the status of people who have dedicated their lives to serving in the army.

Like many other publications, this book caused fierce controversy, but soon many of its ideas formed the basis for the army reforms carried out in the country.

"Political Order in Changing Societies" (1968)

In this study, the American political scientist conducts a detailed analysis of the socio-political situation that developed in the world by the end of the 60s of the 20th century. It was characterized, among other things, by the emergence of a whole community of countries, mainly from former colonies, which escaped the control of the metropolises and chose their own path of development against the backdrop of the confrontation between global ideological systems, the leaders of which were the USSR and the USA. This situation led to the emergence of the term “third world countries”.

This book is now considered a classic of comparative political science. And after its release, it was subjected to severe criticism from apologists of the modernization theory, popular at that time among Western political scientists. Huntington buries this theory in his work, showing it as a naive attempt to impose a democratic path of development in developing countries by promoting progressive views.

"The Third Wave: Democratization at the End of the 20th Century" (1991)

Most of the book is occupied by the substantiation of the sinusoidal nature of the global process of movement of countries towards democratic forms of state. After the rise in such a movement (Huntington counted three waves: 1828-1926, 1943-1962, 1974-?), there follows a decline (1922-1942, 1958-1975).

The concept is based on the following provisions:

• Democratization is a global process with general trends and special cases.
• Democracy has the character of an intrinsic value that does not have pragmatic goals.
• Diversity of forms of democratic order.
• Democratization does not end at the end of the 20th century; a rollback of some countries is possible and the onset of the 4th wave in the next century.

Theory of civilizations

The book "The Clash of Civilizations" (1993) made Huntington's name famous throughout the world, causing particularly fierce controversy that extended beyond the borders of the United States. According to the scientist, in the coming 21st century, the determining factor for the world order will be the interaction of different cultures or civilizations formed by a common language and lifestyle.

In addition to Western civilization, Huntington counts eight more similar formations: the Slavic-Orthodox led by Russia, the Japanese, Buddhist, Hindu, Latin American African, Xing (Chinese) and Islamic civilizations. The scientist assigns the borders of these formations the role of the main lines of future conflicts.

Tragedy as an argument in discussion

Having published the book “The Clash of Civilizations and the Restructuring of the World Order” three years later, the writer raised the intensity of the discussion around his theory even higher. In the events of the tragic day of September 11, 2001, many, especially Americans, saw additional confirmation of the correctness of the predictions of the famous political scientist, the personification of the beginning of the confrontation between different civilizations.

Although many political scientists report a negative attitude towards Huntington’s theory on the part of US academic circles, there is an opinion that after the terrorist attacks accompanied by Islamic slogans that swept across the world, the “theory of civilizations” was finally adopted by the US ruling circles.

Happy family man

A man who sometimes spoke out very decisively on the pages of his books and was able to stubbornly and adamantly defend his opinions in public disputes, Samuel Huntington was very modest and balanced in everyday life. He lived for more than half a century with his wife Nancy, raising two sons and four grandchildren.

The last major work of the scientist was published in 2004. In the book "Who Are We? Challenges to American National Identity," he analyzes the origins and characteristics of this concept and tries to predict what challenges await American national identity in the future.

In 2007, Huntington was forced to end his professorship at Harvard due to deteriorating health due to complications from diabetes. He worked at his desk until his last day, until he passed away at the end of December 2008 in the town of Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts.

His earthly existence was put to an end, but the discussions generated by his books around the world will not subside for a very long time.

Samuel Phillips Huntington (1927-2008)

Samuel Phillips Huntington is one of the most influential American scholars in the fields of political science and international relations. He received his bachelor's degree from Yale University (1946) and his master's degree from the University of Chicago (1948). S. Huntington defended his doctoral dissertation at Harvard University in 1951, at the age of 24, where he subsequently researched and taught (with some interruptions) until the end of his life. He was director of the Center for International Studies at Harvard University (1978-1989) and director of the Harvard Academy of International and Area Studies (1996-2004).

At the beginning of his scientific career, he gained fame primarily as a researcher of civilian control of the armed forces, publishing in 1957 the book “The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations” 319. He is the founder and editor-in-chief of Foreign Policy magazine. Born in New York, his father was a journalist, his mother a writer.

From 1959 to 1962, S. Huntington worked as executive director of the Institute of War and Peace at Columbia University. In 1977-1978, he was coordinator of the planning department at the US National Security Council (during the presidency of J. Carter).

S. Huntington is the author of numerous works in the field of political modernization, international relations, theory of democracy and immigration. His books include Political Order in Changing Societies (1968); American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (1981), “Who Are We? Changing American International Identity" (2004).

The concept of the “clash of civilizations” created by him, which describes the dynamics of modern international relations through the prism of conflicts on a civilizational basis, has become very famous. S. Huntington first outlined his view on geopolitical socio-political problems in 1993 in the article “Clash of Civilizations?” . It was published in the journal Foreign Policy and almost immediately appeared in Russian in the journal of the Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Political Research. It caused a worldwide resonance and formed the basis of the book “The Clash of Civilizations and the Rethinking of World Order,” which became a global scientific bestseller.

If F. Fukuyama proposed to consider the main factor determining modern world politics as the complete victory of liberal ideology, then S. Huntington considered this approach to be overly optimistic. In his opinion, at the end of the 20th century, the geopolitical balance of power is determined by ideologies that go beyond the traditional confrontation between liberalism and authoritarianism. The main opposing forces are civilizations that unite groups of countries with similar mental values.

Following A. Toynbee, S. Huntington argues that “human history is the history of civilizations.” In the modern world there is a clash of seven or eight civilizations: Chinese, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic, Orthodox, Western, Latin American and possibly African.

The map of the ethnocultural division of civilizations, built according to Huntington’s concept, looks like this:

• 1 - Western culture; 2 - Latin American culture;
• 3 - Japanese culture; 4 - Xing culture; 5 - Indian cultures; b - Islamic culture; 7 - Orthodox culture;
• 8 - Buddhist culture; 9 - African culture

Within a civilization, there is usually a core country that organizes a unified policy for the entire group of countries with similar cultural norms (for example, the United States in modern Western civilization). Every civilization strives to expand its influence or at least maintain its identity from pressure from other civilizations. Instead of the ideological confrontation of the 20th century, intercultural conflicts will play a major role in the 21st century.

In the 16th - first half of the 20th centuries, the main dominant force was Western civilization, which determined the international climate. However, in the second half of the 20th century, the world first became bipolar (the confrontation between the West and the USSR), and then multipolarity gradually formed. Western civilization is gradually losing its leadership, but the independence of the Far Eastern civilizations and the civilization of Islam is growing. In the modern world, the main thing has become the division into “the West and everyone else,” with the most aggressive anti-Western struggle being waged by Islamic civilization. Conflicts are growing along “fault lines” where protracted wars are taking place (as, for example, in the Middle East). In this new world, the West, according to S. Huntington, must abandon claims to the universality of its values ​​and attempts to impose them by force in non-European countries.

S. Huntington suggested that in the near future a confrontation between the Islamic world and the Western world is inevitable, which will resemble the Soviet-American confrontation during the Cold War. These constructions of his gained particular popularity in the West after the tragic events of September 11, 2001.

Another well-known theoretical development of S. Huntington is the concept of “waves of democratization,” which manifested themselves at different periods in different groups of countries. The first wave arose under the influence of the American and French revolutions and was the longest - from 1828 to 1926, after which its decline began (in 1922-1942) under the influence of the establishment and strengthening of totalitarian regimes (primarily in Italy and Germany). The second, shorter wave of democratization, according to S. Huntington's periodization, occurred in 1943-1962 (the creation of democratic institutions in Europe, Asian countries, Africa), and its rollback - in 1958-1991 (the establishment of authoritarianism in many countries of Latin America and dictatorial regimes in African countries liberated from colonial rule). The third wave of democratization dates back to 1975-1991 (marked by the fall of dictatorships in Portugal, Spain, a number of countries in Asia and Latin America and the collapse of the communist camp in Eastern Europe and the collapse of the USSR). The number of democratic states has increased significantly. However, later this wave of democratization began to give way to a reverse wave 324.