Works of art created in besieged Leningrad. Creative and scientific life of Leningraders during the blockade. Much has been said and written about the cultural life of besieged Leningrad. Here are the Internet resources on this topic that seemed to us the most interesting

Chapter IV[C1]

CULTURE OF THE ERA OF THE RUSSIAN PREVENTATION (end of the 15th - 16th centuries)

At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. almost simultaneously with England, France, Spain, the formation of a single state completed the process of unification of Russian lands. Unlike mononational states Western Europe, The Russian state was originally formed as a multinational; the unification process in Russia relied not so much on economic and cultural ties as on the military power of the Moscow princes. The lack of economic unifying force, which in the West was the "third estate" - the emerging bourgeoisie of prosperous cities, in Russia was more than made up for by the state. All this gave rise not only to a specific form of autocracy, but also to a special socio-psychological atmosphere inherent in Russia in the sixteenth and subsequent centuries. The emerging all-Russian culture at the end of the 15th-16th centuries. was subordinated to the tasks of serving the “sovereign cause”. Social thought and literature are permeated with concern for the Russian state, and architecture is subordinated to state tasks. The growth of state power was reflected even in the painting of the XVI century. Finally, after two and a half centuries of almost complete isolation, the culture of the young Russian state came into contact with the Renaissance culture of the West, which became an important condition for overcoming the well-known cultural backwardness and strengthening Russia's position among other European states.

Folklore

The main theme of oral folk art is the struggle for independence. In this regard, the heroic epic epic Kiev period. Many historical songs are devoted to the same topic, which became famous in the 16th century. the most widespread genre of folklore. The songs responded to the most important events and historical phenomena that left a deep imprint in the people's mind. For example, the politics and personal life of Ivan the Terrible gave rise to whole cycles of historical songs ("Campaign to Kazan", "Cossacks go to Kazan", "The Capture of Kazan", "Ivan the Terrible prays for his son", "", etc.).

In parallel and in close connection with the historical song, a younger genre also developed - the folk ballad (narrative song of a dramatic nature). Some ballads are very ancient origin, the features of Slavic paganism appear in them ("Princess and the Serpent", "Fugitive Prince", etc.), but most are devoid of archaism and turned to modernity ("On the Son", "Defense of Pskov", etc.).

Socio-political thought and literature

End of the 15th century became a turning point in history public thought and journalism: at this time, the beginning was laid of those disputes about rituals and letters, which in the 17th century would lead to the Schism; there were signs of religious free-thinking, attempts at rationalistic criticism of the basic tenets of Orthodoxy; and finally critical issue socio-political thought was the question of the place of the church in the state.

Heresies were one of the most striking manifestations of the mental life of the Middle Ages in Europe. In the 70s - 80s. 15th century in Novgorod and Moscow a heretical movement arose, called " heresy of the Judaizers". The moderate part of the movement limited its struggle to the right to a certain free-thinking in literature and science, the more radical came to the denial of the church hierarchy (demanding a cheap and righteous church) and basic theological dogmas (about the trinity of God). Some ideas of heretics (denial of monasticism and church land ownership ) aroused the sympathy of the state authorities, who saw in large church land ownership a source of replenishment of the land funds of the treasury.Despite the support of Ivan III, the church council of 1490 condemned the heresy.

Ideas of heretics of the 15th century. found their continuation with " nonpossessors". Teachers of non-possessiveness (the ideologist of Russian hesychasm Nil Sorsky and Vassian Patrikeev) spoke out for the reform of monasteries to raise their authority, urged monks to asceticism and moral self-improvement, pointed to the inconsistency of church practice with the principles of Christianity. The ideas of non-possessors found support from the boyars, the serving nobility and from Grand Duke, but from the side of many churchmen met with hostility. Joseph, formulating the position of the highest hierarchs, justified the presence of material wealth in the church, depicting church lands as "a refuge for poor and ruined peasants." Osifians achieved an alliance with the grand ducal authorities on the condition of maintaining their positions. Joseph Volotsky developed theory of theocratic absolutism, according to which the power of the Grand Duke is of divine origin, which not only strengthened its authority, but also strengthened the role of the church in the state. Non-possessors were condemned as heretics at the church councils of 1503, 1531. The basic views of the Osifians became the official teaching of the church. The underdevelopment of socio-economic relations, the lack of a broad social base for the reform movement predetermined the defeat of the heretics and the strengthening of the positions of the church. This was reflected in the development of the Russian culture XVI century, which found itself under the most severe pressure of canonical requirements,

The variety of social ideas that expressed the aspirations of various strata in the new socio-political conditions was reflected in secular journalism. Representatives of the clergy took part in the formulation of the theory of the feudal monarchy (the theory "Moscow - the third Rome" of the monk Philotheus, who came up with the thesis of the God-chosen kingdom and substantiated not only the world significance of the Russian state, but, in more, of the exceptional importance of the church), nobles (petitions containing a program for building a noble state headed by an autocrat) and, finally, representatives of the princely-boyar aristocracy (the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Prince Andrei Kurbsky demonstrates diametrically opposed views on the state power of the crowned apologist for autocracy and the representative of the princely -boyar opposition, a staunch supporter of the estate-representative monarchy). These political concepts reflected the main trends in the development of Russian statehood that took shape in the 16th century.

Adjacent to journalism thematically and ideologically historical literature , imbued with the idea of ​​strengthening autocracy, strengthening its alliance with the church. So, the Nikon Chronicle, according to the plan of its compilers (Ivan IV was among the editors), was supposed to show the history of the Moscow kingdom as the history of a world power, and Ivan IV as a worthy successor to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. In the "Power Book" the history of statehood was intertwined with the history of Orthodox Church, and the main business of state power was the protection and strengthening of Orthodoxy.

The ideology of the feudal monarchy, so actively discussed in journalism, in historical and ecclesiastical literature, was applied by archpriest Sylvester to private life in the famous work Domostroy (mid-16th century), dedicated to the life and life of a prosperous urban family.

In the XVI century. a new genre of literature emerged action-packed story("The Tale of the Merchant Dmitry Basarga and his son Borzomysl", beginning of the 16th century). It is symptomatic that the influence of socio-political ideas is noticeable in this genre as well. In addition to the entertaining plot, the success of the story was also facilitated by the fact that its hero was a merchant's son. With the growth of commodity-money relations, merchants occupied a prominent position in feudal society; having a relatively high level of literacy, he needed his literature, and it appeared.

Architecture

At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. a new stage in the development of stone architecture began. The creations of Russian masters in monumental forms reflected the major changes that took place in the life of the country. With the transformation of Moscow into the capital of an independent unified state, the formation of the idea of ​​​​it as a stronghold of Orthodoxy, the desire to raise the artistic and technical level of Moscow construction is connected. The most skilful Russian craftsmen (Pskovians, Tverians, Rostovites) worked here alongside the best architects of Europe. As a result, Moscow architecture lost its regional limitations and acquired an all-Russian character. By the end of the XV century. the white-stone Kremlin of Dmitry Donskoy (1367) fell into disrepair. For the construction of new walls and towers of the Kremlin (1465 - 1495), Italian masters were invited (Milanese engineer Pietro Antonio Solari and others).

The new brick walls (more than 2 km long with 18 towers) turned out to be not only excellent fortifications, but also wonderful works of art. In the 30s. 16th century the second line of stone fortifications was erected in Moscow - the walls of Kitay-gorod (architect Petrok Maly), and in 1585 -1593. - the third - the White City (master Fyodor Kon). A peculiar result of the development of fortress architecture in the 16th century. the remarkable Smolensk Kremlin (1595-1602, architect F. Horse) became.

On the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin, on the site of dilapidated and cramped churches of the time of Ivan Kalita, new ones were erected. During the construction of the Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479), the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, following the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, creatively combined the most characteristic ancient Russian forms with the Renaissance understanding of architectural space and created a completely original work that struck contemporaries with "majesty, height, lordship, sonority and space". The composition of the new cathedral was taken as a model during the construction of the Smolensk Cathedral Novodevichy Convent in Moscow (1524-1525), the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1559-1585), the St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda (1568-1570), etc. In 1505-1509. the Italian Aleviz Novy built the tomb of the Moscow princes - the Archangel Cathedral, decorating it like a two-story palazzo in the spirit of the Italian Renaissance. Such a frank use in the decoration of the temple of details characteristic of civil engineering, marked the strengthening of secular traditions in religious architecture. The Cathedral of the Annunciation (1484-1489) and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe (1484-1486), built by Russian craftsmen, are much more connected with the traditions of Pskov, Vladimir and early Moscow architecture. The ensemble of the Cathedral Square is completed by the Faceted Chamber (Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari, 1467-1491), which had a five-hundred-meter square hall, covered with four cross vaults with a powerful supporting pillar in the middle, and a tall pillar-shaped church-bell tower of John of the Ladder (Bon Fryazin, 1505- 1508), which was a tower of slender octagonal structures with arcades for bells. The elegance of the building was emphasized by flat shoulder blades at the corners and light cornices.

The engineering and aesthetic experience of Moscow was used by the builders of many Russian fortresses (Novgorod, 1490-1500; Nizhny Novgorod, 1500-1511; Tula, 1514-1521; Kolomna, 1525-1531).

The creation of a new all-Russian architecture was not limited to this. In the first half of the XVI century. Russian architects accomplished the task of transferring the elements of a tent-shaped church (a pillar-like structure with a tent-shaped top structure never seen before in stone architecture) into stone construction. One of the best examples of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1530-1532). This is a truly Russian building in all forms, which broke with the usual image of a cross-domed church. The composition of the church consists of four main elements: a basement, a powerful quadrangle with ledges-porches forming a cruciform plan, an octagon and a tent with a cupola. With a huge height, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe temple is small. It was created primarily for viewing from the outside, as a solemn monument to an important event - the birth of the heir to the throne. The complex shape of the gable kokoshniks, the octagonal shape of the drums of the heads of the side pillars, the unusual decoration of the central drum with half-cylinders, the decor of the Church of the Beheading of John the Baptist in the village of Dyakovo (mid-16th century) also testify to the impact of wooden architecture.

Russian architects Barma and Postnik Yakovlev in 1554-1561. in memory of the capture of Kazan, the Cathedral of the Intercession was erected on Red Square, "what is on the moat." The architectural ensemble of the church consists of nine pillar-shaped temples of various heights, the names of which reflect the Kazan events. initial color scheme The building was formed by a combination of red brick walls with white carved decorative stone, which harmonized with sparkling domes covered with "white iron" and colored majolica decorations of the central tent. Elegant onion domes of the cathedral appeared at the end of the 16th century, and flowery painting - in the 17th-18th centuries. The temple on Red Square, as foreigners noted, "was built, as it were, for decoration rather than for prayer." The secular beginning in it prevails over the cult. Bold in composition and extraordinarily decorative, it embodied the full power of the Russian architectural genius. This is the highest point in the development of Russian architecture of the XVI century.

In the second half of the XVI century. a conservative trend appeared in religious construction. The hundred-headed church cathedral of 1551 strictly regulated church construction. The architects were ordered to adhere to the canonical model of the Assumption Kremlin Cathedral, hipped buildings that contradicted Byzantine models were prohibited. As a result, many ponderous repetitions of the Kremlin masterpiece appeared in Russia. Only at the very end of the century, under Boris Godunov, in architecture there was again a craving for diversity and elegance of forms, increased decorativeness (the church in the residence of Boris Godunov, the village of Vyazemy, 1598-1599).

In general, the architecture of the XVI century. in terms of scale, diversity and originality of creative solutions, it belongs to the most striking stages in the history of Russian architecture.

Painting

At the end of the XV century. in ancient Russian painting, the "Rublev" direction played a leading role. Artists turned to subjects more old testament, to the legendary-historical genre, showed interest in national life, in Russian realities (architecture, costume, etc.).

The largest artist of the Rublev direction at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. was Dionysius (30 - 40s of the XV century - c. 1508). Unlike Andrei Rublev, he was a layman, apparently of noble birth. His two sons - Vladimir and Theodosius - were also artists and worked with their father. The most important among the surviving works of Dionysius is the cycle of murals in the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery (1502). They have come down to us in their original form almost completely. The main theme of the painting of the Nativity Cathedral was "Akathist" - a cycle of solemn lyrical chants in honor of the Mother of God. These frescoes showed best features The style of the artist is ideally beautiful proportions, a soft rounded silhouette combined with a light but resonant color, and finally, the ultimate unity of painting with architecture. The influence of Dionysius affected all the art of the 16th century.

However, in Russian painting of the XVI century. there was a desire for abstract "philosophizing", for the interpretation of the most important Christian dogmas in artistic images, which led to an overload of the image with details, symbols (the icons "Vision of Eulogy", "", "The Parable of the Blind Man and the Lame Man", the Russian Museum). But at the same time, church regulation was strengthened. artistic creativity. In the resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551, icon painters were required to write "how the Greek icon painters painted and how Ondrey Rublev wrote, and nothing to pretend from his own design." Strict ecclesiastical supervision not only over icon painting, but also over the icon painters themselves, was charged to special elders from "deliberate masters." The ideal image that every artist should have striven for is outlined in chapter 43 of Stoglav: “It is fitting for an artist to be humble, meek, reverent, not idle talker, not a laugher, not quarrelsome, not envious, not a drunkard, not a robber, not a murderer; especially keep purity of soul and body..." For icon painting of the 16th century. characterized by the exaltation of official political ideas by means of art. Thus, the icon-picture "Church Militant" or "Blessed is the army of the heavenly king" (mid-16th century, State Tretyakov Gallery) bears little resemblance to a traditional prayer image. It depicts the solemn return to Moscow of the Russian troops from the conquered Kazan, conveyed as an apotheosis of the "army of the king of heaven." Rather, it is a picturesque monument to the Kazan victory of Ivan the Terrible, a work, in fact, of the historical and allegorical genre. In the XVI century. the appearance of the Russian icon also changed. A silver basma or chased salary becomes an almost obligatory accessory. To emphasize the brilliance of the salaries, the faces were often painted intentionally with dark, inexpressive colors.

The same changes as in icon painting took place in monumental painting, which is known primarily from Moscow monuments. Even in the traditions of the 15th century, in a style close to the Ferapontov frescoes, the new Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation (1508) was painted by the son of Dionysius, Theodosius. The murals of the cathedral reflected the popular idea of ​​the continuity of power between the princes of Vladimir and the Byzantine emperors by the princes of Moscow.

The murals of the Smolensk Cathedral of Moscow's Novodevichy Convent (c. 1530) embodied another political theory - "Moscow is the third Rome." More complex is the composition of the murals of the Assumption Cathedral of the Assumption Monastery in Sviyazhsk near Kazan (1561). The painting is a kind of pictorial theological treatise dedicated to the proof of the Christian dogma of the incarnation. It is significant that, in addition to episodes of the Old Testament history, complex symbolic images of Christ and the Mother of God, the painting includes portraits of state and church figures of the 16th century - Ivan the Terrible, Metropolitan Macarius, and others. The development of the historical portrait genre is associated with an increase in interest in historical themes.

The traditional book miniature has undergone XVI century significant changes in connection with the replacement of parchment paper and the introduction of printing. In particular, a woodcut appeared - woodcut. Among the best engravings of the XVI century. belongs to the headpiece with the image of the Evangelist Luke in the first printed book of I. Fedorov - "The Apostle" (1564). The pupil and follower of the first printer, Andronik Timofeev Nevezha, who worked in the Moscow printing house after the departure of his teacher, greatly contributed to the development of the art of book engraving.

In the XVI century. a culture of the Great Russian nationality developed, which consolidated the corresponding ethnic process. It was in the 16th century. the history of the culture of the Russian people in the proper sense of the word began (as well as the culture of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples). Diverse new phenomena that characterize the cultural development of Russia in the next 17th century were prepared by the historical and cultural process of the end. XV-XVI centuries

Questions and tasks for the chapter IV

1. What role did the formation of a unified Russian state play in the development of Russian culture? It is known that in comparison with the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization in Russia had a number of features. Did they influence the historical and cultural process?

2. What is the significance for Russian culture of the influence exerted on it by the advanced Renaissance culture of the West in the 15th-16th centuries? Show this with any examples.

3. Why were the ideas of heretics and nonpossessors, which found understanding and support not only among the boyars and nobles, but also among the Grand Duke, still condemned, and their bearers were subjected to the most severe persecution?

4. In what genres of Russian literature, con. XV - XVI centuries. raised important journalistic issues? Recall the political concepts formulated by representatives of various classes. Which of the ideas expressed by them were embodied in the political practice of the Russian state? Why?

5. What signs of the formation of all-Russian architecture can be seen in the buildings of the late XV - 1st floor. 16th century? What was the significance of church regulation for the further development of Russian architecture?

6. Why in honor significant events sculptural monuments were not erected in Russia? How were such events celebrated? Show this, for example, at memorial buildings in Moscow related to the life and work of Ivan IV.

7. The Cathedral of the Intercession, "what is on the moat" (otherwise, St. Basil's Cathedral), built on the main trading, and therefore crowded square of the capital, could simultaneously accommodate only a small number of people. How does this relate to the purpose of the building? How do you explain both names of the cathedral?

8. Dionysius was the successor of the Rublev tradition in Russian painting. View albums with reproductions or go to Tretyakov Gallery to get acquainted with the originals, and try to determine whether the work of Dionysius was a simple imitation of the great predecessor, or was it a new step in the direction in which Rublev was moving?

9. How were current political ideas reflected in the painting of the 16th century? What consequences did church regulation have for the further development of Russian painting?

The origin of the name heresy has not yet been satisfactorily explained. According to some, it is due to the fact that the heresy was brought from Lithuania by the learned Jew Skhariya, others associate the name with the fact that in their polemics with the official church, heretics turned to the Old Testament.

From the name Joseph comes the name of the "money-grubbers" - "Josephites" or "Oseflyane".

0be churches are located within the boundaries of modern Moscow.

This monument is popularly called St. Basil's Cathedral in memory of the Moscow miracle worker, who was buried in the cemetery at the cathedral. ordered to arrange a chapel in the Intercession Cathedral on the site of this burial and build a silver shrine for the relics of the Blessed One (1588).

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Leningrad (detail)

I am not a Leningrader by birth.

And yet, I am quite right to say,

That I am a Leningrader for smoky battles,

According to the first trench poems,

Through cold, hunger, deprivation,

In short: by youth, by war!

In the Sinyavino swamps, in the battles near Mgoya,

Where the snow was now in ashes, now in brown blood,

The city and I lived the same fate,

Like relatives, their own.

It was different for us: both bitter and difficult.

We knew it was possible, sliding on the bumps,

You can perish in a swamp, you can freeze,

Fall under a bullet, you can despair,

It is possible to do both,

And only Leningrad cannot be given away!

And I saved him, forever, forever:

Nevka, Vasilyevsky, Winter Palace...

However, not me, not alone, of course.

He was covered by a million hearts!

Eduard Asadov

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By order of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief dated May 1, 1945, Leningrad was named a hero city for the heroism and courage shown by the inhabitants of the city during the blockade. On May 8, 1965, by the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Hero City of Leningrad was awarded the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star medal.

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ART OF BLOCKED LENINGRAD

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Leningrad is one of the largest centers of culture

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LITERATURE OF BELOCADED LENINGRAD

“Every Soviet writer is ready to give everything, his strength, all his experience and talent, all his blood, if necessary, to give to the cause of the sacred people's war against the enemies of our Motherland."

Slide 7

• Vera Mikhailovna Inber
• Olga Fedorovna Berggolts
• Nikolai Korneevich Chukovsky
• L. Panteleev
• Lydia Yakovlevna Ginzburg

Slide 8

MUSIC AND THEATER IN BELOCADED LENINGRAD

Both the musicians and the listeners, like all the inhabitants of the besieged city, suffered hardships and the pangs of hunger and cold, and died. However, the voice of art did not stop...

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One of the symbols of the winter of 1941-1942: The billboard is covered with snow and is not updated

A good artist always has a desire to work. Wide opportunities for this were provided by participation in concert teams that performed in military units, at recruiting stations, wherever music is needed.

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The blockade ring closed on September 8, 1941. On this day, the play " Bat". The theater staff was not evacuated. At the beginning of the war, he had to perform in front of a half-empty hall. However, as the situation around Leningrad and in the city itself stabilized, the number of spectators began to increase.

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• Scene from the opera "Eugene Onegin", 1942. Photo courtesy of Kryukov A. N.
• Scene from the ballet "Esmeralda", 1942. Photo courtesy of Kryukov A. N.

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Songs were printed even on postcards and envelopes.

Musical works continued to be printed during the blockade of Leningrad

Who said that you have to leave the Songs in the war? After the battle, the heart asks for Music doubly!

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"Our victory over fascism,

our coming victory over the enemy,

to my beloved city of Leningrad

I dedicate my seventh symphony"

Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich

"Seventh Symphony"

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PAINTING OF BLOCKED LENINGRAD

V hard days During the siege, the artists of Leningrad did not stop working for a single day.

About the courage, extraordinary willpower, exceptional perseverance and patience of Leningraders, who heroically endured the exorbitant hardships of life in the conditions of a besieged city, they told in their canvases.

"Combat Pencil" is a creative association of Leningrad artists who produced propaganda posters and collections of satirical drawings in the middle of the 20th century. This phenomenon of mass art is often referred to as such.

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"Leningrad in the days of blockade and liberation" A.F. Pakhomov

“The gray leaden sky hanging over the city, rare snowflakes, whirling, fell on the embankment near the Lieutenant Schmidt Bridge. - Sailor, would you give me some bread? - the tired eyes of an old woman looked at me from under the scarf.

From the diary of Ivan Dmitriev, artist of the theater of the Baltic Fleet

Today it is incredibly difficult to imagine the hardships of blockade life. But still, try to imagine at least for a minute that heating, electricity, cold and hot water were turned off in your house for just a day, there is no gas, the sewage system does not work ... Imagine? Now multiply all this by 900.

In besieged Leningrad, simply surviving was a feat. And we had to fight and survive! In addition, many poets, artists, actors and musicians, despite the harsh life, weather conditions, hunger and illness, also worked, and ordinary Leningraders went to concerts, listened to the radio and read books until they burned them to kindle stoves.

During the years of the Great Patriotic War while staying in Leningrad, Anna Akhmatova was still in a state of inspiration and creative upsurge. According to her, the poems went in a continuous stream, "treading on each other's heels, hurrying and suffocating." Akhmatova continued to write, and she wrote surprisingly well, despite the fact that her fate at that time was difficult - her son was arrested for the second time, all the efforts and efforts to free him led to nothing.

Akhmatova saw the first cruel blows inflicted on the city she glorified. So, in July 1941, the famous "Oath" appears: And the one that says goodbye to the sweetheart today - Let her melt her pain into strength. We swear to children, we swear to graves, That no one will force us to submit!

This fragile woman, seriously ill, starving, wrote unusually strong poems: full of tragedy and feelings of compassion, love and sorrow. During the war years, perhaps her best poem, Requiem, was written. “I went to Akhmatova,” Pavel Luknitsky recalls meeting with her in August 1941. - She was lying - sick. She greeted me very cordially, she was in a good mood, and with visible pleasure said that she had been invited to speak on the radio. She is a patriot, and the realization that she is now in soul together with everyone, apparently, encourages her very much.

Reading excerpts from the diary of the little-known musician Alexander Pergament, one involuntarily thinks about how hard it was for people, soldiers, commanders at that time, and how they needed, simply needed support. Thanks to concerts, radio appearances, their fighting spirit and optimism never faded. The music was a sip fresh air, momentary happiness, which made it possible to disconnect from the harsh reality. From the memoirs of A. Pergament: “Blocked Leningrad. Winter forty-one. The sound of a metronome coming from the speakers.

Music in those days was not yet broadcast on Leningrad radio, and at first it seemed obvious to us: times are harsh! But when leaving with brigades to the defenders of the city, they often heard: “Why are you not entertaining us enough? If only there was something on the radio for us!”

In the harsh time of the siege, we traveled a lot with concerts. We understood that our arrival to the tired, exhausted, but strong spirit the defenders of the city carry a charge of optimism, confidence in victory ...

We have always been concerned about the issue of repertoire. Olga Berggolts, Vera Inber, Nikolai Tikhonov, Vsevolod Azarov, Alexander Kron came to us and brought their new works, born in the besieged city.

And so we opted for Matvey Tevelev's play "Towards the Squadron". Of course, we saw both the advantages and disadvantages of the play, but everyone was burning with one desire: to create a big performance about the Great Patriotic War. Sometimes, however, it was not believed that the premiere would take place. A very hard time! The actors were barely on their feet, exhausted, weakened, but full of enthusiasm.

And the premiere took place on July 5, 1942 in the small hall of the House of Culture of the Industrial Cooperation! The performance turned out to be somewhat chamber, very portable, and was well received by our audience.”

The premiere of the performance during the siege seems to be something like a miracle, magic. But the most important premiere took place on August 9, 1942 in Great Hall Leningrad Philharmonic. On that day, the Seventh " Leningrad Symphony» Dmitri Shostakovich. “There are half-dead musicians on the stage, who were hardly searched for throughout the city and even among the front-line soldiers who defended the city. There are listeners in the hall who did not know if they had the strength to get to their homes after the concert.”

I imagine that day, I imagine the hall full of people, and as if I feel the same thing that Leningraders, exhausted by the blockade and the war, felt then.

Where is the source of such an unparalleled stamina of a person during all 900 blockade days? I think it is in people who create such music in the hour of mortal trials, play this music and listen to it.

These cannot be defeated!

, Anna Akhmatova , 1944

Poetry of besieged Leningrad Olga Berggolts, Eduard Asadov, Anna Akhmatova and others.

Poems about Leningrad, Len.gazetno-journal. ed., 1947

Prose

• Vera Inber, Almost three years (Leningrad diary), Soviet writer, L., 1947
• Olga Berggolts, Daytime stars, Soviet writer, L., 1959
• Alexander Borisovich Chakovsky, Novel "Blockade" (books 1-5, 1968-75; Lenin Prize 1978)
• , Mirror
• Alexander Borisovich Chakovsky, It was in Leningrad
• Tamara Sergeevna Tsinberg, "Seventh Symphony", story - L., Det. lit., 1969.
• Nikolai Korneevich Chukovsky The novel "Baltic Sky", 1946-1954, publ. 1955, film of the same name 1960. About the pilots of the Baltic Fleet, the defenders of the besieged Leningrad.
• Panteleev L., In a besieged city. Living monuments. / Collected works in four volumes. Volume 3. L .: Det. lit., 1984.
• Mikhail Chulaki novel "Eternal bread", 1984. Ed. Soviet writer.
• Ginzburg L. Ya. Passing characters: Prose of the war years. Notes of the blockade man. M. : New publishing house, 2011.
• Nina Rakovskaya, Boy from Leningrad, State. publishing house of children's literature, L., 1945.
• Arif Saparov, The road of life. L.: Lenizdat, 1947.
• Arif Saparov, January forty-two. From the besieged Leningrad chronicle. L.: Soviet writer, 1969.
• Victor Konetsky, Who looks at the clouds. First edition - mid-1960s.
• Nikolai Tikhonov, Leningrad takes the fight. Leningrad: Goslitizdat 1943. 416 p.

Modern poetry and prose

• Polina Barskova, Live pictures. SPb. Publishing house of Ivan Limbakh, 2014.
• Sergei Anufriev, Pavel Pepperstein, chapters from the novel "The Mythogenic Love of Castes" (1999-2002)
• Andrey Turgenev, Sleep and believe: blockade novel. M., 2007
• Sergei Zavialov, Christmas post, poem (2009)
• Igor Vishnevetsky, Leningrad, story (2009)
• Polina Barskova, poetic cycle "Handbook of Leningrad front-line writers 1941-1945", from the book "Message of Ariel" (2011)
• Boris Ivanov, outside the walls of the city. Deserter Vedernikov, novel (2012)
• Irina Sandomirska, “Blockade in the word. Essays on the critical theory and biopolitics of language. Moscow: New Literary Review, 2013.
• Gennady Alekseev, vers libre "Firebird"

Music

• Dmitri Dmitrievich Shostakovich, Symphony No. 7 "Leningrad" (1941-1942)
• Boris Vladimirovich Asafiev, "Dithyramb to the Great City" (1941), "Songs of Sorrow and Tears" (1941) for piano solo, "Kants of the Unforgettable Memory of Alexander Dmitrievich Kastalsky" for mixed choir a capella (1941-1942) on texts from church use
• Gavriil Nikolaevich Popov Symphony No. 2 "Motherland" (1943, conceived in the winter of 1941-1942 in a besieged city)
• Boris Ivanovich Tishchenko, Symphony No. 5 "Chronicle of the Siege" (1975)
• V. Kudryashov (music), M. Ryabinin (words), Spanish. Wil Okun and Ensemble, Papin's Waltz
• Songs of the Splin group "Blockade", "Waltz" and "Orchestra".
• British rock musician Blaze Bailey's song City Of Bones from the album Promise and Terror (2010)
• Song by Chris de Burgh Leningrad
• Album "The Diarist" (2006) Italian Dark bands Lunacy is completely dedicated to the blockade of Leningrad.
• Song and video clip of the group "The Biggest Prime Number" (SBPC) - "Blockade"
• The song "Unconquered" by the rock group "Kipelov" from the single of the same name
• 09/08/2012 on the day of memory of the victims of the Siege of Leningrad, the premiere of the Third Symphony (Military) op.13 by composer Alexei Kurbatov took place in the Great Philharmonic Hall (St. Petersburg), orchestra conducted by Igor Ponomarenko. The symphony was broadcast live on the city squares.

monumental art

• Monument to the children who died on May 9, 1942 (Smolensk cemetery)
• Memorial to the Heroic Defenders of Leningrad on Victory Square

art

V the best works, created during the blockade years, reveals the scale of the greatest tragedy that is taking place.

The fine arts of Leningrad have never reached such a powerful socio-political significance, as was the case during the days of the blockade. During the blockade, many artists worked in Leningrad, there were about a hundred members of the Union of Artists alone. The artists had to work to mask military facilities, to evacuate museum valuables, and to disguise monumental sculpture. The most famous of the monuments is the monument to Peter the Great, Bronze Horseman"It was decided to leave it in place, protecting it and covering it with sand. The artists also worked on the creation of the Museum of the Heroic Defense of Leningrad, the decision to create which was made in the autumn of 1943. The museum was opened in May 1944, and in 1953 was disbanded, as a result of the fabricated "Leningrad case", but the museum exhibits were preserved.

Many artists directly followed the instructions coming from the Regional Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Political Directorate of the Front, who called for “to equate the pen with a bayonet,” and turned their art into a powerful propaganda resource. Picturesque works written during the blockade are far from being as numerous as graphic works. Battle painting includes numerous works created at that time by painters commissioned by the Leningrad Union of Artists, depicting episodes of the battles that took place during the battle for Leningrad, events taking place at the front, the fighting of partisans, and also the raised theme of the heroism of the defenders of the city. Artists received official orders to paint "military portraits", while many soldiers came to pose directly from the front, receiving a short vacation. Other orders were portraits of the Stakhanovites and the working life of the townspeople, much less often - the events of Russian military history. The works sang the stamina and courage of the defenders of the city, carried the promise of victory. Among the artists who worked in this direction, the most famous were V. A. Serov, G. S. Vereisky, I. A. Serebryany, N. Pilshikov, V. A. Vlasov, V. I. Kurdov, and many other masters. A series of 24 lithographic works by A. F. Pakhomov " Leningrad chronicle”, completed in 1947, was awarded the State Prize after the war.

Since the beginning of the blockade, the poster has become the most popular and mass form of art; one of the very first posters that appeared in the city was made by V. V. Lebedev, in the past, famous master of this genre, in 1919-1920 he worked on a series of posters "ROSTA Petrograd windows". At the beginning of the war, no more than five people worked on the poster, while by August the number of poster artists approached fifty, they worked in the renewed TASS Windows and for the Combat Pencil association. The posters had a strong impact, calling on passers-by from the walls: "Death to the child killers", "Destroy the German monster". In addition to the "Combat Pencil" sheets and posters, popular prints, postcards, and portraits of war heroes were produced in large numbers. Postcards, published in circulation up to 25 thousand, were dedicated to the military theme. During the war years in besieged Leningrad, book graphics could not find work, the activities of most publishing houses were almost paralyzed. , so postcards have become, above all, a possible source of income. The blockade life was reflected, however, in these stories as well - the theme for the postcard could be "A woman knitting mittens for fighters."

All the time of the blockade there was an active exhibition activity, the first exhibition was opened on January 2, 1942. Blockade exhibitions, until 1944, were rarely attended (15-18 people a day), including not only because people put survival issues in the first place. Thematic paintings were painted by artists socialist realism, which, unlike the "critical" realism of the 19th century, did not provide for criticism. "During the war, N. N. Punin compared the means of influence of art with weapons. You can’t conduct military operations with weapons of the past ... There were orders. These were the so-called thematic paintings. And there was a contingent that easily carried out these orders, their artists semi-contemptuously called painters. They worked for the increasingly undemanding taste of their superiors, possessing a certain, but rather crafty skill, they filled the exhibitions with their products, from which a person who wanted to see genuine painting became sick ... Something dead, frozen looked from the walls of exhibitions in St. Petersburg ... moreover, this the process did not stop. At the exhibitions, everything became more and more gray .. "

The creative positions of the Leningrad artists were divided.

Already at the end of the 1930s, the academic hierarchy of genres was “restored” in socialist realism, artists turned directly to the authorities (in official canvases) or to colleagues (solving plastic problems in portraits and still lifes). Works representing the landscape and everyday genre became predominant in blockade art.

In genre painting (and graphics) in the first years of the blockade, tragic and dramatic themes predominate; story-narrative works appear by 1944. Historians distinguish two lines of this genre - one with an accentuated plot, or with the disclosure of the theme through the image of one person, while the artist does not set himself the portrait task. The second line of development of the genre is a kind of landscape, often urban, with elements of genre action introduced into it. Another topic was "events that took place at the front or behind enemy lines"; these works, according to historians, also gravitated either to the everyday genre, with a clearly defined plot basis, or to the “military” landscape.

Daily life of the city

A significant part of the works created during the blockade were drawings that were documentary in nature. Some of them were made in sketches, but in many cases they are finished, well-thought-out separate things. Most of these works are far from the parade “military officialdom” encouraged by the Regional Committee, and from optimism. They reflect the life of the inhabitants of the city, opposing the hardships of difficult years. Often the theme of these works are images of suffering and sorrow.

Most of the blockade graphics (and partly paintings) are life drawings, and are divided into groups - urban landscapes filled with people, more often deserted, portraits and everyday sketches. Many of these works were made on government orders, most of them were purchased for the Leningrad Defense Museum.

One of the dramatic images, characteristic of the blockade winter, repeated in many works, is a man carrying a sleigh along the street with the body of a dead man. The themes of P. M. Kondratiev’s watercolors were the cleaning of street fences, ambulance cards, trucks frozen into ice; the works of S. S. Boym - cleaning snow on the streets, queues at the bakery, harvesting and unloading firewood, evacuating children, a hospital, a Christmas tree market in December 1941. The drawings by N. M. Bylyev-Protopopov depict dystrophics warming themselves near the stove, street barricades , girls weaving camouflage nets, teenagers on duty on the roofs, and a cluster of coffins at the gates of the Okhtensky cemetery. I. A. Vladimirov is known for his cycle of documentary sketches of the events of 1917-1918, he made the second such cycle during the blockade, this time his themes were the cleaning of corpses on the streets, the “road of death”. The plots of L. I. Gagarina were people wrapped up sitting at the oil lamp, snow removal from the streets, the plots of T. N. Glebova were people sitting in a bomb shelter, mounted police, dismantling collapsed houses after a raid, crowds of fire victims sitting on the streets among their belongings , dystrophic, dining in the nightingale of the Union of Artists. L. N. Glebova painted the faces of blockade children and women with children's coffins on a sled. E. M. Magaril painted people in a hospital, G. K. Malysh - children's corpses on the streets, and - a salute in honor of the lifting of the blockade in 1944, A. E. Mordvinova - people helping to extinguish fires, a woman with a newborn, sitting near a potbelly stove, a public tea room, V. V. Sterligov - the wounded in the hospital, A. G. Traugot - crossing the frozen Neva, S. N. Spitsyn - the life of schoolchildren, students of the secondary school, T. Kuperwasser - nurses in the hospital, E. Ya .Higer - heating repair. A. N. and V. N. Proshkins wrote about captured Germans near Shlisselburg, echelons delivering fuel to the city. A. L. Rotach - a fire in the Zoological Garden, Ya. O. Rubanchik - vegetable gardens St. Isaac's Cathedral, water intake and frozen transport, sandbags, an air raid alarm, a line at a tobacco store, mountains of things taken with them by evacuees, stacked at the Finland Station, A. I. Rusakov and A. F. Pakhomov in the winter of 1941 made full-scale sketches of people dying of dystrophy people in the hospital F. Erisman.

L. A. Ilyin painted explosions on the streets (he soon died from one of them) and corpses piled in the basements. The plots of M. G. Platunov are more tragic - murders and thefts on the streets that occurred because of a piece of bread, desperate suicides, people frozen on the street. Many of the works made during the blockade can be attributed with confidence to the everyday genre, but not all of them, since it was impossible for the artists to accept the explosions on the streets and the corpses stacked in piles as everyday life.

The daily life of the city and portraits of citizens were also the subject of the works of E. O. Marttila, P. I. Basmanov, V. G. Boriskovich, P. Ya. Zaltsman, V. V. Milyutina, V. V. Zenkovich, L. A. Ronchevsky, A. I. Kharshak, M. A. Shepilevsky, N. Dormidontov, E. Belukha, S. Mochalov. Worked in the blockade and sculptors. Not all works created during the blockade have been preserved, many have been lost. The blockade works of Yevgenia Evenbach were also devoted to the military everyday life of the besieged city. .

The artistic merits of the works were different, for example, the tragic cycle of works (linocuts) by Solomon Yudovin and the lithographic series by Adrian Kaplan, where he combines household plot with the finest texture of a "multi-layered" pattern. In many blockade works by artists of the "Leningrad school" there is a perceived impassivity of fixation, a desire to present nature "as is", without an expressive mood.

Some artists set themselves the goal

“Draw like a chronicler.. as an eyewitness to things that many cannot see, and many turn a blind eye to them..” “.. I do art.. I have no inspiration to describe the beauty of air battles. searchlights, rockets, explosions and fires; I know what horror this extravaganza brings with it .. "

Such works include the series “The Horrors of War for the Civilian Population” and “The Siege of the City” by T. N. Glebova, a student of P. N. Filonov and a follower of his “analytical method”. .

The works created during the siege themselves became a part of history and the cause of the emergence of new works of art. There is a series of drawings by Vera Milyutina entitled The Hermitage during the Siege, depicting empty museum halls, walls without pictures, fallen chandeliers. It was this series that formed the basis of the works of the Japanese artist Yasumara Morimura “The Hermitage. 1941-2014”, which was exhibited in the halls of the Hermitage in 2014 during the Manifesto 10 exhibition and recognized as “the most sensitive work about the Hermitage that reacts to the historical context”.

A special place among all the besieged art is occupied by the painting work of L. T. Chupyatov “The Protection of the Virgin over the besieged city”. It was painted by the artist shortly before his death in the besieged city, September 8-10, 1941, when the Badaev warehouses were burning in the city.

blockade landscape

"Many people believe that if an artist is only engaged in landscape, then he is distracted or deliberately departs from the resolution of large significant topics, while the landscape - and this is confirmed by the entire history of painting - plays a large social role. Landscape, in essence, is the worldview of the era ", wrote G. N. Traugot. The artists reflected the blockade in their paintings and graphic works in such a way that they remained far from direct naturalism in the depiction of suffering. But they are expressed, first of all, by the dying city itself.

The enormous symbolic significance of St. Petersburg, obvious both to its defenders and to the enemy troops striving to occupy it, is also comprehended in a number of outstanding works of art high artistic expression.

Artists on the verge of starvation created works that later were combined by researchers into a special genre of “siege landscape”.

The most piercing works were created by artists in the very first blockade winter, which left the strongest impressions on Leningraders.

The work of artists directly on the streets besieged city was not welcome, however, many of the works created during the blockade belong specifically to the urban landscape genre. Sometimes I had to work on the streets during shelling. Many artists depicted the streets of the city during shelling, houses destroyed by explosions, hidden monuments.

Besieged landscapes were painted and painted by M. P. Bobyshov, B. N. Ermolaev, A. L. Kaplan, A. V. Kaplun, S. G. Nevelshtein, Ya. S. Nikolaev, A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, N A. Pavlov, N. E. Timkov, G. N. Fitingof.

Among them, it is customary to single out architectural landscape, characteristic "fidelity of reproduction of the image object". Among those who painted them were many architects: I. S. Astapov, A. K. Barutchev, E. B. Bernshtein, V. M. Izmailovich, L. A. Ilyin, V. A. Kamensky, A. S. Nikolsky, M. A. Shepilevsky, L. S. Khizhinsky... The famous architect L. A. Ilyin, in addition to a series of landscapes, drew a graphic diary, *Walks around Leningrad.

The extraordinary and terrible beauty of the besieged city was reflected in their works, first of all, by the artists of the "Leningrad school" - V. V. Pakulin, A. N. Rusakov, G. N. Traugott.

V. V. Pakulin never painted urban landscapes before the war, and it was during the blockade that the beauty of the city was revealed to him. Many artists noted that in the winter of 1941-1942, Leningrad was especially beautiful: sparkling with hoarfrost, motionless and almost deserted. Pakulin created about fifty urban landscapes, among them - “The House of the Book. Prospect October 25 (1942), At the Admiralty (1941-1942), Hermitage. Jordan Entrance (1942), Prospect 25 October. Spring (1943), Demidov Pereulok (1943). Many of these works use a pearl-gray gamma that reflects the haze of the light-air environment.

The most famous of the picturesque blockade series of G. N. Traugot are his paintings “Gunboat at the Winter Palace” 1942, “Neva with Pushkin House” 1942, “At Petropavlovka” 1942, they depict deserted squares, snow-covered streets, transparent air, Neva, on which warships are stationed. He also created a watercolor blockade cycle. All his works are strict in color, their colors gravitate towards monochrome. The feeling of "mirage", ghostliness persists even when genre scenes are included in the landscape. The artist does not write really terrible things that happened in the city at every turn. The courageous mood of his painting belongs to the sphere of high tragedy, the same can be said about the drawings (“The Icy Sun of the Blockade”) The author’s individual experience grows to the scale of heroic pathos.

And I. Rusakov belongs to those rare artists who could survive the entire blockade. without stopping working. He created the most expressive picturesque portraits of the city, deserted and destroyed, in the most difficult time for him, the first winter; these works are often reproduced and exhibited. "Rusakov, apparently, felt the special significance of each written and pictorial evidence "from the inside", which Academician G. A. Knyazev noted in his blockade diary. Hence the important property of his drawings. made in 1942-1943. , - they are detailed, and executed as finished things. not sketches.

The fundamentally chamber nature of Rusakov's blockade watercolors, both city landscapes and portraits, separates them from the well-known series of A.F. Pakhomov (“Leningrad during the blockade and restoration”) or the portrait series of G.S. Vereisky. There is no deliberate emphasis on heroism, or on suffering. The artist carefully captures everyday life cities.

blockade portrait

An exceptionally important place in blockade art is occupied by a self-portrait. The main idea for the blockade self-portrait is the opposition of life and creativity - death and destruction. Self-portraits painted by artists different directions- from the students of P. N. Filonov, who only died in December 1941, - artists P. Ya. Tretyakov Gallery) - and a series of tragic self-portraits by V.P. Yanova, before the works of Y.S. Nikolaev (1942) and A.A. Bantikov (1944). From the diary entries of Elena Marttila, it follows that it was the work on a self-portrait, in which she wanted to record the process of her own dying, that saved her life in the winter of 1942.

The "blockade portrait" was fundamentally different from the picturesque portraits made by state order, and always depicting a person performing a feat, labor or military. To enhance the impression, the portrait was often half-length or generational. In contrast to them, "siege portraits" have a different, chamber character. It can also be portraits - types, like female images in the portraits of P. I. Basmanov and V. V. Zenkovich. Often, relatives or close friends of artists become models for blockade portraits, as in the portrait of artists E. Zazerskaya and T. Kuperwasser, 1941, written by A. I. Rusakov.

This same chamber genre also includes portraits of artists of the socialist method, V. I. Malagis (Portrait of an old worker, 1943; Portrait of the artist Ivanov, 1943), Y. S. Nikolaev (Portrait of M. G. Petrova, 1942, portrait of the artist Vikulova, 1942), N. Kh. Rutkovsky (Portrait of A. Frolova - Bagreeva, 1943). One of the main differences between these works and the official commissioned portrait is the expansion of the range of traditions used. Departing from the canons of socialist realism, these artists turned to French painting, to impressionist portraits, however, completely changing the concept of color, replacing it with a deliberately polluted one. Although, in words, French impressionism was condemned in Soviet criticism of the 1940s.

Post-war art

Cinema

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Art films

• Blockade (epic):
• “Leningraders, my children…” (Uzbekfilm, 1980)
• Solo, dir. Konstantin Lopushansky (1980)
• "Red streptocide" (short film, dir. Vasily Chiginsky, 2001)
• "Ladoga" (TV series, dir. Alexander Veledinsky, 2013)
• Leningrad (film, dir. Igor Vishnevetsky, 2014)

Documentaries

• Siege of Leningrad
• Leningrad blockade
• Seventh Symphony
• Blockade tram
• "Leningrad in the fight". Director: R. Karmen, N. Komarevtsev, V. Solovtsov and others, USSR, 1942
• "Feat of Leningrad". Director: V. Solovtsov, E. Uchitel, USSR, 1959
• "City under siege". Director: P. Kogan, USSR, 1969
• "Their weapon is a movie camera." Director: K. Stankevich, USSR, 1980
• "Memories of the Blockade". Director: V. Semenyuk, USSR, 1990
• Program Investigations "Searchers"
  • "Witness to the Great Siege" (2005)
  • "Ghost Road" (2006)
• Documentary cycle «

art

besieged Leningrad

Further and further in time, the years of war are separated from us. A new generation has already grown up, which only through the stories of the elders and through works of art is familiar with these tragic events. Russians are a special people, because over the centuries their character has been tempered in the fight against enemies and invaders. It was very important for us, schoolchildren at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, to understand what people thought and felt in those years, and we were especially concerned about issues related to the difficulties that befell Leningraders during the difficult years of the war. Of course, historical documents report facts that speak of the tragedy of people who lived and worked in besieged Leningrad. However, more emotionally and vividly, as we believe, art can tell about this.

In our work, we tried to explore the works of Leningrad masters during the days of the blockade, who worked in the field of propaganda and mass art, painting, and culture. The work of these people was closely connected with the life of the city and the soldiers of the Leningrad Front. The works of these masters raised the spirit of the city and its defenders, formed an active opposition to the forces of fascism and the hardships that befell the people of Leningrad and the army.

From the first days of the war, the enemy rushed to Leningrad. After only a few months, he stood at the walls of the great city. Despite the rapid advance of the fascist hordes, no one could yet foresee what the military fate of Leningrad would be and what awaited the people of Leningrad.

The word "blockade", which absorbed all conceivable and unimaginable difficulties, torments, troubles, arose and took root in the anxious life of the townspeople not immediately. Something terrible was happening, approaching, and the Leningraders were eagerly looking for where, where their personal efforts, their selflessness, their readiness to fight, and if necessary, to die, were needed. If only this helpless expectation of the worst did not last. It was necessary to find in the deed, in the general and main deed, an outlet for anger and anxiety...

A. Anushina. "Leningrad in July 1941"

The artists did everything that was necessary to protect hometown. More than a hundred people - members of the Leningrad Union of Artists - immediately went to the front. Many fought in the people's militia. Everyone tried to defend their city with weapons in their hands.

Those who were not in the army built defensive structures, worked in logging, and received military training in air defense teams. Some artists believed that no one needed art during the war, that the Union of Artists should simply be temporarily closed. But the work of painters, sculptors, graphic artists - their professional work - immediately became urgently needed by the city-front.

M. Platunov. "Night Alert"

Already at the end of June 1941, a large group of artists began to do a great job of masking military installations - primarily airfields. It was also necessary to mask the most important civilian objects (in particular, Smolny) and famous architectural structures. It was necessary to shelter from bombs and shells the famous monumental sculpture. For each monument, architects and sculptors developed a special way of hiding. Strange, boarded sand hills have grown in the city, pedestals have become empty…

N. Protopopov. "Fire"

But the leadership of Leningrad believed that the strength of cultural figures lies not only in this. She is in those works of art that were able to support the people of the besieged city, to raise them to fight. V. Serov, a member of the Leningrad Union of Artists, recalled the words that the city leadership addressed to cultural figures: “Your weapon is art, a pencil. No one has the right to discard this weapon, to leave it without a fighter. This weapon should be in the hands of the artist, because it also effectively strikes the enemy and brings tremendous benefits to our cause.

H Despite the most difficult living conditions in besieged Leningrad, the artistic life did not fade away in it throughout the heroic defense of the city. Masters of painting, sculpture, graphics created works that have now become documents of the time, bearing the truth about the life and struggle of Leningraders.

One of the important means of fighting the enemy was painting. The artists showed the surprisingly tragic beauty of the city, found artistic means to convey their moral ideals, reflected in the landscape, to the hearts of the besieged Leningraders and soldiers lying in hospitals after being wounded or defending the borders of Leningrad.

Every day, the landscape painter V. Pakulin went out onto the streets of Leningrad with a sketchbook in his hands. Wrapped in woolen shawls and an old fur coat, he stood idle for hours in the cold, not paying attention to exploding shells, barely holding a brush in his weakened hand, under which more and more new pictures of the tragically empty beautiful city were born. Written on nature, fluently and broadly in a sketchy way, they still do not lose their not only emotional, but also truly aesthetic value. Signs of war are not everywhere visible in his landscapes, but they are always full of a special, sensitive silence, a surprisingly quivering, heightened feeling of love for the city, and sometimes bright joy, all the more amazing when you know where and how they were painted.

One of the brightest artists of the blockade time was a painter. Timkov N.E. He began to paint landscapes of Leningrad in 1941 - beautiful, truthful, humane. As a rule, they are chamber and intimate - both in terms of the small size of the sheets and in the chosen motifs (a piece of a street or an embankment, a public garden, a yard). And, most importantly, according to the clearly palpable in them - the mood: either twilight sadness, or alert anxiety, or spring cheerfulness.

Here in his picture "Leningrad in the blockade" 1942 we see a frozen embankment, buildings rise to the right, having a very gloomy, deplorable appearance due to broken and broken glass.

Work "Leningrad" 1943 is a typical painting by Timkov N.E. Here we see a quiet courtyard, where there are houses with boarded up windows and rare inhabitants.

Both of these paintings convey the image of a city experiencing great hardships, but maintaining courage.

During the war years, despite the efforts of citizens to save the museums, which were empty, they had a very sad appearance due to multiple bombardments. We can judge their condition by the works of the talented painter V. Kuchumov.

V. Kuchumov "Embankment of the Neva at the Winter Palace" 1942

From the diary of a blockade survivor G.A. Knyazev:

“Leningrad is being fired from long-range guns by the Germans. This is how the shells burst. Yesterday a shell hit a house on Glazovskaya Street, demolishing half of the house. Somewhere a shell hit the square - many killed and wounded. There was another shelling tonight. And so the shells thump somewhere in the direction of the Moscow railway station, there, further, behind it.

D
For such artists as S. Mochalov and V. Zenkovich, the most important thing was not the figures of people who are either depicted far away or completely excluded from the composition. The main thing was to convey the atmosphere that prevailed in the city: harsh, tense, and to express the steadfastness of the city's defenders. The landscapes of V. Zenkovich are filled with some ringing beauty.

S. Mochalov "The shelling of Labor Square" 1942

V. Zenkovich "On the Neva embankment" 1943

D
For a more truthful transmission of those difficult blockade days, the artist S. Boym showed the streets and residents in the harsh winter of 1941-1942 with the accuracy of a documentary.

S. Boym "Water from the Neva" 1942

From the notes of G.A. Knyazev:

“07/15/1941. Today our greatest valuables were sent from the Archive to the Hermitage - the manuscripts of Lomonosov, Kepler, drawings of the Kunstkamera, etc. They will be sent with the Hermitage's second echelon to a safe place. Which? We do not know…”

The war spared no one and nothing. Evidence of this is the diary of the deputy director of the Russian Museum, G. E. Lebedev, who headed the team that remained in Leningrad. Here is one of the entries, dated August 5, 1943: “A terrible day. Two heavy shells hit the museum. One of them is fifteen meters from our apartment.<...>In the main building - in the library and academic hall - a chaos of broken bricks, broken frames and marble.<...>And they hit and hit again. Very close..."

Artists could not stay away from this sad event. Hardly experiencing the tragedy of their native city, they captured the state in which the treasuries of Leningrad art turned out to be. Many years later, at the exhibition "In the Hour of Courage" in the State Russian Museum, dedicated to the fortieth anniversary of the complete lifting of the blockade, Y. Nikolaev recalled: "I have never felt his beauty, appearing through the pain, so clearly, I have never felt the color like that."

V. Milyutin "Hermitage, broken window" 1942

V. Kuchumov "Interior view of the building of the Russian Museum" 1943

The blockade changed the image of the city. Knyazev G.A. wrote in his diaries: “Sphinxes, my ancient friends, stand alone on a semi-desert embankment ... Opposite them, the massive building of the Academy of Arts looks gloomy with boarded up windows. With some heavy white grandeur it still suppresses. The Rumyantsev Square has thinned out and been exposed. There is a bivouac. Red Army soldiers roam, a fire burns, a horse nibbles on the remnants of yellowed grass. On the Neva, dark leaden water ripples under falling grains of wet snow. The marvelous monument to Peter sank in the sand poured around him. A sad sight is a row of old houses along the embankment from the 1st line to the university: they all stand with blown out or broken windows ... "

It is difficult to overestimate the significance of the imaginative panorama of the besieged city created by artists during the war years. The feeling of historical significance that arises when looking at canvases dedicated to the events of the war speaks of the aspirations of the authors to create voluminous and complete works of thought. Despite the genre characteristic of many works, they convey a dramatic content. The background of the works is often the icy space of a deserted urban landscape (one gets the feeling that the paintings radiate a soul-piercing winter cold). The "iciness" of the canvases is intended for the audience to visually imagine the incredible severity of the hardships that fell to the lot of Leningraders, but at the same time to feel the stubbornness and steadfastness of the inhabitants of the besieged city. Thus, by means of laconic pictorial means, the artists recreated the atmosphere of besieged Leningrad.
Wartime portraits are a special chapter in history Soviet art. Interest in a man - a warrior, a worker, on whose shoulders lay the heavy and noble task of defending the Fatherland, among artists has increased tremendously.

Never before had the artist and the "nature" he portrayed been so united by a common destiny - their hearts beat in unison, burned with a single fiery desire - to survive and defeat the hated enemy! In Leningrad, an artist and a warrior - whether a Red Army soldier or a sailor, a pilot or a partisan - were still soldered by the tragedy of nine hundred blockade days ...

Mikhailova O. E., an employee of the Hermitage, recalled: “The blockade bound us so tightly that we still cannot break this bond. The blockade opened people to the end, people became, as it were, naked. You immediately saw everything positive and negative in a person. good start, the good side blossomed so luxuriantly!”

That is why the portraits of those years are so simple and exciting. They were created, as a rule, extremely quickly. To study nature, to search for the most expressive artistic means didn't have enough time. Sketches and preparatory work were not made. The portrait was created immediately - with a brush on canvas, with a pencil on paper - in several, and most often in one session. But how the skill of many artists grew in those heroic years! Their eyes seemed to have become more vigilant, their hearts more sensitive, their hands more confident and firm. And the portraits of their contemporaries-compatriots of those great years created by them in one breath amaze us with the depth of images, truth, sincerity, clearly tangible excitement of the artist and high skill. The best of them entered the golden fund of the Soviet visual arts. These are already named Self-portrait” by Y. Nikolaev. “Portrait of I. Boloznev” by I. Serebryany, sculptural portraits of partisans and sailors by V. Isaeva, portraits of cultural figures G. Vereisky, among which the portrait of academician I. A. Orbeli is especially expressive, numerous portraits of partisans V. Vlasov, portraits made by P. Belousov, V. Malagis, V. Serov, V. Pinchuk.

We see the artist K. Rudakov, who appears before us confidently standing, with a clear look, directed forward.

K. Rudakov. self-portrait
F the painter Nikolaev Ya.S., extremely emaciated and sick, even in the most difficult days of the blockade did not part with a pencil and a brush. His self-portrait of 1942 is extraordinarily expressive: an ascetic thin face, an inquisitive, intelligent look, severely knitted eyebrows, tightly compressed lips - courageous and beautiful image a man who managed to overcome, it would seem, death itself.

I. Nikolaev.self-portrait,1942.
Radio acquired special significance for the people of Leningrad. The voices that sounded on the radio were the voice of the Motherland, mother, friend, comrade, able to support and encourage in a difficult moment. That's why the artist . Nikolaev Ya.S. captured in his work Petrova M.G.

Ya. Nikolaev. Portrait of the artist of the Leningrad radio M. G. Petrova

AND Of all the coming trials for Leningraders, perhaps the worst thing is hunger. Hunger and bombardment! The only thing missing would be cholera, or plague, or just starvation typhus. People tried to accustom themselves to look events in the eye and think as little as possible about the future. When this future comes, then comprehend it!..

Ya. Nikolaev. "Queue for bread"

G.Fitingov. "One hundred grams of bread"
The cards that were issued to representatives of the intelligentsia gave meager rations, which were noticeably different from those received by people who worked in factories. But despite all the people continued to live and create. D.S. Likhachev recalled: “The human brain was the last to die. People wrote diaries, philosophical essays, scientific works, sincerely, "from the heart" thought and showed extraordinary firmness, not yielding to the pressure of the wind, not succumbing to vanity and vanity. Artist Chupyatov L.T. and his wife starved to death. Dying, he drew, painted pictures. When there was not enough canvas, he wrote on plywood and on a card ... "
The winter of 1941/42 in Leningrad... Fierce, hungry, cruel. A series of endlessly long dark days, the most tragic and courageous among the nine hundred unprecedented days of the blockade. The city seemed dead: the deserted streets were covered with snow, the cold bulks of houses gaped with wounds, torn wires hung lifelessly, trolleybuses were frozen dead in snowdrifts. There was no bread, light, water.
The war affected everything that had to be done. And there was also work - to clean up the corpses, take them to the trenches, save the city from epidemics. This work is terrible for a person.

Y. Neprintsev "Blockade" 1943
One of the direct participants in the blockade, who lived in the city throughout the war, recalled: “I was afraid of the dead, but I had to load these corpses. They sat directly on the cars with corpses, from above, and drove them. And my heart was kind of off. Why?

Because we knew that today I was taking them, and tomorrow they would take me, maybe. But someone will still be alive. We firmly believed that the Germans would never take the city ... "

Babich M.Ya.: “... in each apartment the dead lay. And we were not afraid of anything. Will you go earlier? After all, it’s unpleasant when the dead ... So our family died out, that’s how they lay. And when they put it in the barn!”

Laksha N.I.: “Dystrophics have no fear. At the Academy of Arts, on the descent to the Neva, they dumped corpses. I calmly climbed over this mountain of corpses ... It would seem that the weaker the person, the more frightening he is, but no, the fear has disappeared. What would happen to me if it were in peacetime - I would die of horror. And now, after all: there is no light on the stairs - I'm afraid. As soon as people ate, fear appeared.”

S. Boym "Winter of 41st", 1942

O a special page of these years is children. And the artists could not stay out of this topic. These boys, warming themselves by the stove-stove in the work of the artist Pakhomov A.F., look very direct and touching.

A. Pakhomov "Children" 1942

Another work of this artist tells about the usual blockade day of little Leningraders.

A Pakhomov "To the Neva for water", 1942. From the series "Leningrad in the days of the siege" (1941-1944).

G the boy's tin is bandaged, left hand in a sling, bewilderment in his eyes: “For what?” This is the name of the drawing by the artist A. Kharshak, which became one of the symbols of the besieged Leningrad. The second title of this work is "The Wounded Child".

A. Kharshak, a graduate student of the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture of the All-Russian Academy of Arts, in 1941, having interrupted work on his diploma, volunteered for the people's militia. Defended Leningrad at the Pulkovo Heights. In fits and starts, in between fights, he took up a pencil and paper. He actively collaborated with the army newspaper "Blow to the Enemy".

During one of the business trips to the besieged city, together with his partner, a front-line photojournalist, he visited the Rauhfus Children's Hospital. There, they caught sight of a boy with a bandaged head and a stunning look. The photographer snapped the shutter of his camera, and the artist began to draw the boy from nature. This drawing was presented at an exhibition of works by front-line artists held in 1943. At the same time, a postcard was also issued.

O
images of the city's defenders are represented in the works of many Leningrad artists. In the picture of A. Blinkov, we are playing a terrible picture of the death of a platoon of the Red Army, which fell into a trap. The work is riddled with pain, suffering and resentment for what happened.

A. Blinkov "Ambush" 1943

B
The days of the partisans are captured in the heroic sheets of V.A. Vlasov and V.I. Kurdov.

All that you have alive
What a terrible and beautiful life,
Blood, fire, steel, word
Overturn the enemy, delay!

Olga Berggolts
V. Kurdov "Partisan Campaign" 1943

Many of the artists, such as the painter A. Bantikov, defended the walls of their native city with a machine gun in their hands, whose works are distinguished by a restrained heroic pathos.

A. Bantikov. Self portrait 1944

A. Bantikov. "The Baltics in defense of Leningrad" 1944

It is impossible to surrender Leningrad ... This feeling, this passionate conviction was stronger than hunger, suffering, illness, strong death. And so the city stood to death. Workers, scientists, poets, musicians, artists stood next to the soldiers to death.

Among all the countless and necessary deeds selflessly carried out by artists, the most responsible and most important thing for them from the first day of the war was the mass visual and pictorial agitation.

How many different forms of propaganda art had to be mastered by the artists of Leningrad in the very first months of the war! They worked on leaflets for agitation among the enemy troops, created dozens, hundreds of drawings for newspapers, made art postcards, which were printed in large numbers. Their subjects were very diverse: the glorious military past of the Russian people, combat episodes of the Great Patriotic War, the exploits of the heroes of the Leningrad Front and the partisan movement. Often, the best posters and sheets of the “Combat Pencil” were reproduced on postcards, reproduced famous paintings Russians and Soviet artists. Lithographed postcards by A. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, who tirelessly glorified the unfading beauty of her native Leningrad, enjoyed special love at the front and in the rear.

M the diverse and complex life of besieged Leningrad is shown in countless drawings, etchings, engravings, watercolors by N. Pavlov, E. Belukha, S. Mochalov, G. Fitingof, V. Milyutina, B. Ermolaev, N. Petrova, Yu. Petrov, I. Grigoryants and others. We see how people wander to the Neva for water, how defensive structures are being built, how the city is cleared of snow and mud. We see fires and shells exploding in the streets, anti-aircraft guns on the embankments and squares, warships frozen into the ice of the Neva, queues for bread and columns of soldiers going to the front.

S. Yudovin "On the streets of Leningrad in the winter of 1941-1942"
From the series "Leningrad during the Great Patriotic War" .
The graphic artist S. Yudovin, before he was taken out of the city in a very serious condition in the summer of 1942, began working on a series of engravings “Leningrad during the Great Patriotic War”. His sheets - "The Yard", "Listening to the Radio", "To the Hospital", "For Water" - are truly tragic and at the same time amaze with their insistent statement: Leningrad suffers, but lives, fights and does not give up. The artist's chisel fixes not death, but life.

S. Yudovin. "In the artist's studio", 1942

The sheet of S. B. Yudovin became a symbol of the selfless labor of fine art masters in the besieged city. "In the artist's studio". In a cramped room hung with paintings, a man dressed in a coat and hat sits by a burning stove. In one hand he holds a palette and brushes, the other he warms by the fire. In front of him is an easel with a painting in progress. Everything in the blockade is simple and ordinary in this scene: a dark room with a window glued crosswise with paper, a stove with a tin teapot - and a tirelessly working man. A simple plot is permeated with the high strength of the human spirit, everyday life turns into heroism.

Posters appeared on the wounded walls of Leningrad every morning. Bright sheets, smelling of fresh printing ink, called for the fight against the enemy, branded the fascist barbarians, called for revenge, helped to live, fight, and believe. They were very necessary then people.

In the frozen rooms of house number 38 on Herzen Street, where the Leningrad Union of Soviet Artists was located, there was a special, intense life of its own. The spacious old house with two high halls for exhibitions, with large, once bright workshops became unrecognizable. In the rooms on the second floor, bunks were built, stoves were heated, "potbelly stoves", dim oil lamps were burning. A weak flame snatched thin, pale faces out of the darkness, threw spots of wavering light on tables littered with paper, paints, pencils, and warmed frozen fingers with timid warmth. Hands in gloves hardly held brushes, the frozen paints had to be warmed by breath. But the artists worked. They worked with amazing energy, perseverance, passion for exhausted people.

WITH
every day the artists understood more and more the need for their enormous work and performed it selflessly, with the last of their strength. But their ranks were melting away, and their strength was diminishing ... More than a hundred people died from starvation, bombing and shelling in the most severe winter of the siege. Among them are outstanding figures of the Soviet fine arts I. Bilibin, A. Savinov, N. Tyrsa, P. Shillingovsky, N. Danko, N. Lapshin...

N. I. Dormidontov. "Urgent order for the front", 1942.

N. I. Dormidontov “Leningrad.
On the Fontanka embankment in August 1942
1942.

From the first days of the war in the Union of Artists, the work of the group of poster artists "Combat Pencil" was resumed, where N.A. Tyrsa, N.S. Astapov, N.E. Muratov, V.A. Serov, V.I. Kurds and many others. "Combat Pencil" - an association of Leningrad artists that published collections of satirical drawings, and in wartime - lithographed military and political posters.

Anxiety! Soared into the sky

Pillars of blue fire.
Rumble at an invisible target
Anti-aircraft guns, keeping our city.

And knows the awakened city:

The anti-aircraft gunner hits without a miss.
And, with a short blast,
Hostile aircraft is on fire.

S. Spassky

N. A. Tyrsa. "Alarm", 1941. Poster "Combat Pencil".

V our city - enemies can not break through,
Do not drink them from our river,
As before, the Baltics are on guard,
Soviet country sailors.

They are like a steel fence

They protect their native city,
About the battle days of Leningrad
Baltic winds sing.

B. Timofeev

V. I. Kurdov. "Baltic people. 1941-1944"
Poster "Combat Pencil".

Already on the third day of the war, the first poster appeared on the streets of Leningrad: "They beat, we beat and we will beat!" artist V. Serov. He is followed by sharp, smashing posters by B. Lebedev “Ran!”, V. Vlasov, T. Pevzner, T. Shishmareva - “Death to fascism!”, A. Lyubimov “Yes, Adolf, you have something here it doesn't work..." and others.

V During the years of the Great Patriotic War, a strong team of poster artists developed and grew in Leningrad. Already in the first months of the war, at least fifty people participated in the work on the poster. Often the most expressive posters were created by those who, in their “peaceful” professional specialization, were far from this peculiar art form. These were easel painters, book graphics and even sculptors.

The main group of poster artists were V. Serov, I. Serebryany, A. Kazantsev, N. Kochergin, T. Ksenofontov, L. Samoilov, A. Kokosh, M. Gordon, V. Vlasov, V. Pinchuk, A. Sittaro.

One of the best poster artists in these years is the painter A. Kazantsev. Already in the first months of the war, his poster “Vengeance! Fascism is hunger, poverty, ruin! Burning hatred for the enemy, a fiery call for retribution resound in this poster with passionate power. A young mother carries a child out of the burning ruins. Her face is full of hatred, A raised hand is angrily clenched into a fist. The word “Vengeance!” Burning in large bright red letters crashes into the black-ocher color scheme of the sheet.

The author of the poster is V. Ivanov, 1942
The posters “Warrior of the Red Army, save!” V. Serov, "Revenge!" A. Pakhomova, “Vengeance and death to fascist cannibals!” A. Vasilyeva, “For the death of our children, wives and mothers to fascist murderers - merciless revenge!” V. Pinchuk and many others.

Sculptor V. Pinchuk brought to the campaign graphics the specific properties inherent in his profession. All defenders of the city remember Pinchuk's poster, which appeared in 1942, - "Have you done everything to help the front?" From the white plane of the sheet, the clearly sculpted head of the worker protrudes, as it were, energetically. Questioning, demanding eyes stare at point-blank range from the poster. The image is extremely collected, concise, clear, it is perceived with lightning speed and precisely, like a blow.

The call to defend one's city, one's people, confidence in the strength of the spirit of the Soviet man, in his readiness to fight to the death with the enemy is another enduring theme of the Leningrad military poster.

"Everyone to defend Leningrad!", "Let's defend the city of Lenin!" - V. Serov's posters of 1941 call. Soon the posters of A. Kazantsev “Youth, to arms!”, A. Efimov “For the Motherland!”, I. Serebryany “Beat harder, son!” and many others.

A. Kazantsev, 1943

The painter I. Serebryany worked on the poster from the first days of the war and grew into a great, highly professional master of propaganda art. His poster "The Russian people will never kneel" was reprinted several times during the war and became one of the classic designs created by the best Soviet poster artists.

Each poster master gradually developed his own pictorial language, his favorite techniques, his own artistic style. But all their works are marked by acute topicality, concreteness and realistic clarity of images, emotional intensity, high patriotic feeling.

I. Silver 1943

V minutes of respite, sparingly bestowed by the war, the fine arts masters drew, painted sketches, sculpted, although, by its specificity, the sculptor’s work needed both materials and working conditions, which seemed impossible to provide in those difficult days. Unfortunately, far from all the works made then in plasticine and wax could be translated into plaster. Many works perished, others were "reincarnated" due to lack of material into other things. But the sculptors did their best to preserve their works.

V. Pinchuk at the end of 1941 creates the sculpture "Baltiets", full of dynamics and expression, A. Strekavin sculpts the figures of steelworkers, V. Bogolyubov conceives a multi-figured monument dedicated to the Great Patriotic War. Work sculptors A. Petoshina, V. Drachinskaya, T. Kirpichnikova, A. Gunnius, T. Linde, V. Gushchina.
V. Pinchuk. "Baltiets", 1942

V. Lishev "Checking documents" 1941-42

T. Kirpichnikova. Children help partisans, 1942

A.Andreeva-Petoshin "Partisan" 1942

V. Pinchuk "Oath of revenge" 1942
Artists arranged exhibitions and their discussions, held creative evenings, published printed materials and thus contributed to the achievement of a common goal - Victory over the enemy.

And finally, the blockade was broken. From the diary of the artist Ostroumova-Lebedeva A.P.: “Today, the order was announced on the radio to the troops of the Leningrad Front. What happened after that! Everyone hugged, kissed, screamed, cried. Then the salute began to the Leningrad troops who had liberated Leningrad. What a grand spectacle we experienced. 24 volleys from 324 guns. Guns were fired from warships and from different parts of Leningrad - guns at Smolny, on the Field of Mars, on Palace Square and in many other places. It was at 8 pm. The night was dark. Fire fountains of red, green, blue and white rockets shot high into the sky. Shouts of “Hurrah” were heard all around, people distraught with joy.

From the series "Leningrad during the Siege" (1941-1944).

A. P. Ostroumova-Lebedev "Salute", 1944.

“... And again the world hears with delight

Russian peal salute.
Oh, it breathes deeply
Liberated Leningrad!”

Those who were born after the war will no longer understand much, and what the military generation went through will not be able to survive. One can only listen to the stories of those who survived and try to understand, try to feel what they experienced and keep it in memory ... And pay tribute to eternal respect and eternal gratitude. Those who survived the blockade were ordinary people. They managed to do the impossible - to survive the icy hell. And not only to survive, but also to remain human. They leave, and the story goes with them. It depends on us that she is not gone forever. Despite the most difficult living conditions in besieged Leningrad, the artistic life did not fade away in it throughout the heroic defense of the city. Masters of painting, sculpture, graphics created works that have now become documents of the time, bearing the truth about the life and struggle of Leningraders.

Used literature and Internet resources:

1. 
   Nikiforova I.V. "Artists of the besieged city" - M., "Art", 1985
2. 
   « Saint Petersburg. Portrait of the city and citizens".- St. Petersburg: Palace Editions, 2003. www.antology.sfilatov.ru/
3. 
   www.davno.ru/posters/artists/kokorekin/
4. 
   www.oblmuseums.spb.ru/rus/museums/
5. 
   pobeda-1941-1945.narod.ru/gal2/photo7.htm
6. 
   www.rusmuseum.ru/ru/editions/video-blokada.shtml
7. 
   www.sgu.ru/rus_hist/authors
8. 
   smena.ru/destiny/62/
9. 
   www.tvkultura.ru/index.html
10. 
    weltkrieg.ru/battles/Blokada/

1. Name of the project - Visual art of besieged Leningrad.

2. Authors - Daria Beloglazova, e-mail: [email protected]; Khilkevich Elena, e-mail:

[email protected]

3. Supervisor - Mironova Natalya Konstantinovna,