Specificity of architecture. What are the types and styles of architecture. The artistic language of architecture

Architecturehowart a lot of
centuries ago, so the history of its origin and development can be compared with
just the history of humanity itself. Word "architecture" v
translated from Latin means the art of creating the simplest and most
other buildings, and then build various structures on them. Resulting in
a person creates for himself a materially ordered living area necessary
him both for a full-fledged life and for work.

Architecture is often compared
with frozen music: obeying its laws, it reminds
musical notation, where the main components of any work are the idea and its material embodiment. Upon reaching a harmonious fusion
of these elements, whether it is an architect's activity or a calculated one, the result
their participation in architecture will be truly graceful and delightful.

Every human
civilization developed with its characteristic architectural style, which
symbolized a certain historical period, its character, main features and
political ideology. Architectural monuments are able to convey the age-old
information about what people appreciated at the time of their construction, what at that time was
the standard of beauty in the art of architecture, as far as
enlightened in terms of cultural development was their way of life, etc. The largest ancient
civilizations are still very often associated with us with incomparable architectural
masterpieces that have survived after them to this day. This is fabulous Egypt with
with its marvelous pyramids, and the Great Wall in exotic China, and
the majestic Colosseum as a historical architectural trace of the existence of the Roman
empires ... Similar examples are endless.

The history of architecture is
independent science at the same time of two profiles: theoretical and
historical. This feature is predetermined by the specifics of the subject itself, where
includes the history of the emergence and development of architecture in general, theoretical
knowledge about architecture, architectural composition, architectural language, and
watching over common features and features of the architecture of a certain time and
places, which makes it possible to recognize its various styles. Learn more about
this can be learned from the following diagram:

History of architectural art:

The era of turbulent technical
development in the modern world gives architects an infinite number of
opportunities to embody the most daring ideas and ideas into reality, thanks to which
today there are architectural styles such as high tech and modern... They, in comparison,
for example, with a controversial Baroque or the oldest Romanesque direction, it is characteristic
courage and persistence of decisions, brightness of ideas and variety of materials.
However, despite the rapid and assertive movement of new modern
currents, old mansions, palaces and cathedrals that play an important role
a kind of symbol of the city or state where they are located, never
will not lose their charm and attractiveness. These buildings seem to exist
beyond any time, causing awe and delight among true connoisseurs of the art of architecture.

Architectureas the art of building,
which forms the conditions of a person's living space through a set of specific
buildings and structures, is divided into certain types:

1. 3D architecture
   structures ... This includes residential buildings, public buildings (shops, schools,
   stadiums, theaters, etc.), industrial buildings (power plants, factories and
   factories, etc.);
2. landscape architecture ... This type is directly related to the organization of the garden and park zone: streets,
   boulevards, squares and parks with the presence of "small" architecture in the form of gazebos,
   bridges, fountains, stairs;
3. Urban planning ... It covers
   the creation of new settlements and cities, as well as the reconstruction of old urban
   districts.

Each individual building or
their complexes and ensembles, parks, avenues, streets and squares, entire cities and even
small villages can evoke specific feelings and moods in us, make us worry
indescribable emotions. This happens by acting on them
a certain idea and semantic information that the authors have put into their
architectural works. Any building is subject to a specific purpose,
which should correspond to its appearance, which sets people up to the established
harmony. The basis of an architect's work lies in finding the most successful
composition, which will harmoniously combine various
parts and details of the future building, as well as surface finishing of the created "masterpiece"
architecture. The main artistic technique of emotional influence on the beholder
is the shape of the building and its components, which can be light or heavy,
calm or dynamic, solid or colored. However, a prerequisite
here is the coordination of all individual parts with each other and with the entire building
overall, creating an inseparable impression of harmony. Various artistic techniques help the creators of the art of architecture achieve this:

• symmetrical and
  asymmetrical composition;
• horizontal and vertical rhythm;
• lighting and color.

A lot of help to architects
it is certainly rendered by modern technology. These are the latest design developments
and materials, powerful construction machines, thanks to which day after day are born
more and more improved types of buildings, increasing the scope and speed of construction,
new cities are being thought of.

The modern art of architecture is based on complete freedom of opinion and ideas, priority areas and how
this style is practically absent, and all the concepts that go
development, have freedom and equality. Creative fantasy of today
architects are not limited by anything, and in full measure the opportunities provided
make our life more expressive and brighter are embodied in modern buildings with
elusive speed.

Topic 1. Problems of understanding and interpretation of works

Development of ways of interpreting art. Ancient descriptions of works of art: Pliny the Elder, Philostrata. J. Vasari: a description of the life of artists and their works. The Age of Enlightenment and the Emergence of Art History. I.-I. Winckelmann. Systematization of art history and organization of museums. Iconographic approach: E. Mal. Psychological and psychoanalytic approaches: Z. Freud, K.-G. Jung. Formal analysis: G. Welflin. Vienna School: M. Dvořák. Semiotic and culturological methods in the interpretation of fine arts. The problem of interpreting works of art in Russian art history. Works by A. Yakimovich and others. Art criticism and the history of art, their common goals and different objectives. Features of the interpretation of the art of the twentieth century.

Topic 2. The idea of ​​the work and its creative embodiment

The problem of design. Factors influencing creative ideas: social and individual. The artist as a "clinician" of the era. The problem of the modernity of the work. The search for ways to embody the artistic concept. Individual and objective difficulties in the implementation of the plan.

Topic 3. The concept of means of artistic expression

Artistic form, its elements and structure. Sign, symbol, allegory and image. Features of the artistic image.

Topic 4. General and uniquely individual in the work

The problem of traditions and canon in art. The canonicity of ancient Egyptian art. Byzantine and Old Russian canon. The problem of innovation in art. Synthesis of traditionalism and innovation. Analysis of works from the point of view of the general and uniquely individual.

Section 2.
Description and analysis of architectural monuments

Topic 1. The artistic language of architecture.

Architecture as an art form. The concept of "artistic architecture". The artistic image in architecture. The artistic language of architecture: the concept of such means of artistic expression as line, plane, space, mass, rhythm (arrhythmia), symmetry (asymmetry). Canonical and symbolic elements in architecture. The concept of a building plan, exterior, interior. Style in architecture.

Topic 2. The main types of architectural structures

Monuments of urban planning art: historical cities, their parts, areas of ancient planning; architectural complexes, ensembles. Monuments of residential architecture (farmsteads of merchants, noblemen, peasants, tenement houses, etc.) Monuments of civil public architecture: theaters, libraries, hospitals, educational buildings, administrative buildings, train stations, etc. Religious monuments: temples, chapels, monasteries. Defense architecture: fortresses, fortress towers, etc. Monuments of industrial architecture: factory complexes, buildings, forges, etc.

Garden and park monuments, garden and landscape art: gardens and parks.

Topic 3. Description and analysis of an architectural monument

a) Alignment of convex and concave surfaces

b) Abundance of architectural decor

c) Smooth wall surfaces

d) Brightly colored walls

24. What style made water an element of architecture (abundance of fountains)?

a) Classicism

b) Baroque

25. What style is the pointed arch typical for?

a) Romanesque

b) Gothic

c) Baroque

26. What is "rib"?

a) Crossing arch

b) Stone ridge of the vault

27. What is "buttress"?

a) Crossing arch

b) Stone ridge of the vault

c) Vertical support outside the temple

28. What is “flying buty”?

a) Crossing arch

b) Stone ridge of the vault

c) Vertical support outside the temple

29. What is a "Gothic rose"?

a) Sculptural image flower

b) A painting of a flower

c) Round window in a Gothic temple

30. What is a "portal"?

a) Entrance to the temple

b) Central nave of the temple

c) Side nave of the temple

31. What is the "nave"?

a) Internal longitudinal room of the temple

b) Eastern part of the temple

c) Western part of the temple

32. What is the basilica temple in terms of?

a) Equilateral Greek cross

b) Latin cross

c) Octahedron

33. What is the maximum height of a Romanesque temple?

34. What is “apse”?

a) Western part of the temple

b) Eastern part of the temple

c) Entrance to the temple

35. What is a "transept"?

a) Eastern part of the temple

b) Central nave

c) Cross nave

36. What style is the rejection of the order system typical for?

a) Classicism

b) Baroque

37. What is a "bas-relief"?

a) High relief

b) Indented relief

c) Low relief

38. What is "high relief"?

a) High relief

b) Indented relief

c) Low relief

39. What is "tempera"?

a) Aniline paints

b) Egg-based paints

c) Watercolor paints

40. What is "glaze"?

a) Translucent paint layers

b) Pastose smears

c) Parallel applied strokes

41. Which portrait is called “representative”?

a) Chamber

b) ceremonial

c) Psychological

d) Self-portrait

42. What composition is typical for a painting in the style of classicism?

a) Personnel

b) Backstage

c) Circular

43. What is "tondo"?

a) Oval picture format

b) Round picture format

c) Square picture format

d) Rectangular picture format

44. What style of portrait often has a landscape background?

a) Classicism

b) Sentimentalism

d) Realism

45. What style is the flatness and ornamentation of painting and graphics typical for?

a) Baroque

d) Romanticism

46. ​​In which style of painting the main role plays a drawing, a line, and a secondary color?

a) Classicism

b) Romanticism

c) Impressionism

d) Baroque

47. What is “animalistic” genre?

a) Image of objects

b) Pictures of animals

d) Portrayal of mythological subjects

48. Which of the paintings cannot be called easel art?

b) Painting

c) Thumbnail

49. Which of the paintings cannot be called monumental art?

a) Mosaic

b) Thumbnail

50. What is Marina?

a) Portrait of a woman

b) Seascape

c) Decorative composition

51. What is "linocut"?

a) Woodcut

b) Metal engraving

c) Engraving on linoleum

d) Stone engraving

52. What is etching?

a) Woodcut

b) Metal engraving

c) Engraving on linoleum

d) Stone engraving

53. What is woodcut?

a) Woodcut

b) Metal engraving

c) Engraving on linoleum

d) Stone engraving

54. What is "lithography"?

a) Woodcut

b) Metal engraving

c) Engraving on linoleum

d) Stone engraving

55. In which engraving is the gravure printing technique used?

b) Monotype

c) Lithography

d) Woodcut

56. What is "monotype"?

a) Glass engraving

b) Woodcut

c) Stone engraving

d) Metal engraving

57. In what engraving is the letterpress technique used?

b) Woodcut

c) Linocut

d) Lithography

58. In which engraving is the flat printing technique used?

b) Woodcut

c) Lithography

d) Linocut

59. What kind of engraving does the “incisor engraving” refer to?

a) Linocut

c) Lithography

d) Woodcut

60. Which engraving has more “effect of unpredictability of the result”?

b) Monotype

c) Woodcut

d) lithography

BIBLIOGRAPHIC LIST

Main literature

· Analysis and interpretation works of art: artistic co-creation: textbook. manual / [and others]; ed. ... - Moscow: graduate School, 20s.

· Glazychev, Vyacheslav Leonidovich... Architecture. Urban planning. Monumental art: materials for the MHC lesson: methodological material /. - Moscow: Chistye Prudy, 20s.

· Zabalueva, Tatiana Rustikovna... History of arts: styles in fine and applied arts, architecture, literature and music: textbook. /. - Moscow: Association of Construction Universities, 2003.

· Petrov, Vladimir Mikhailovich... Quantitative methods in art history: Textbook. manual for university students: vol. 1. Space and time artistic world/ Petrov, Vladimir Mikhailovich. - Moscow: Meaning, 20s.

· Composition problems: study . allowance. - Moscow: art, 20s.

· Miklashevich, Sergey Viktorovich... Engraving: Part 2: Gravure Engraving (etching) /; Ed. N. Ivanov. - Moscow: Young artist, 20s.

additional literature

· Aleksakhin, N. N. Artistic crafts of Russia: textbook /. - Moscow: Public Education, Research Institute of School Technologies, 20, p.

· Gabrichevsky, Alexander Georgievich... Morphology of art: scientific. edition /; comp., approx. -Pogodina; total ed. ... - Moscow: Agraf, 20, p.

· Braginsky, V.E. Pastel: teaching material /; Ed. N. Platonov. - Moscow: Young Artist, 2002.

· Bridgeman, George B. Man as an artistic image; per. from English : textbook / J. B. Bridgman; Per. M. Avdonina. - Moscow: Eksmo, 2005 .-- 349 p.

· Konstantinova, Svetlana Sergeevna... History of arts and crafts: lecture notes: course of lectures /. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 20s.

· Maloletkov, Valery Alexandrovich... Ceramics: methodical material /; Ed. N. Ivanov. - Moscow: Young Artist, 20,

· Space in other words: French poets of the twentieth century on the image in art / comp., per., note., and foreword. ... - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of Ivan Limbikha, 20s.

· Sergeev, Yu. P. Secrets of icon painting skills: methodological material /; Ed. N. Platonov. - Moscow: Young artist, 20s.

· Eisenstein, S. Psychological issues of art: textbook for university students / S. Eisenstein; ed.-comp. ... - Moscow: Meaning, 20s.

Electronic and video publications

BBC: The World History painting [Electronic resource] = Sister Wendy "s Story Of Painting. - Electronic data. - Great Britain, 1996 = Moscow: Video", 2004. - 3 electronic optical disc (DVD-ROM): sound, color: 12 cm.

· Contemporary Russian art [Electronic resource]. - Electron. Dan. –Moscow: and Methodius + ”, 1997. - 1 electron. wholesale disc (CD-ROM): sound, color : 12 cm - System. Requirements: CD - ROM for Windows.

· BBC: World History [Video]: From the History of Architecture "Temples of the World". - Moscow: KVADRA video studio. - 1 vk.

Internet resources

· History of fine arts. Museums and galleries [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http: // www. ***** / museum. htm.

· History of painting [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http: // www. ***** / articles / show-15.htm

INTRODUCTION .. 2

THEMATIC COURSE Plan .. 3

Full-time education .. 3

Part-time education .. 4

WORKSHOP PLANS .. 17

TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK ... 21

TESTS FOR VERIFICATION OF THE LEARNING OF LEARNING MATERIAL .. 22

REFERENCES .. 29

Transcript of the discussion of V.F. Marcuson's report at a meeting of the methodological
seminar under the hands. A. Rappaport and B. Sazonov "Problems of design"
04/21/1971. From the personal archive of A.G. Rappaport

Markuson V.F. When talking about the informational essence of architecture, there is no doubt about it. But when they talk about artistic expressiveness, about the language of architecture, then this question has not been worked out at all or almost at all. The works on this issue still set out the points of view that developed during the time of Vitruvius. And when they talk about the language of architecture, they use this expression more metaphorically. Usually, this means the sum of all funds that the architect uses. Let's try to find out if this amount of funds is not an integral specific system. Let's start by clarifying the relationship of architecture to other forms of art, since we will be mainly interested in artistic structures. Considering a building, we first of all talk about the purpose of it as a whole and its parts, about structures and about space, without which the function is unthinkable. The raison d'être of architecture is space. Function is not expressed otherwise than through organized matter or, if by this we mean simply structure, then through architectonics. Further, these functions are expressed in terms of space. Space expresses functions in terms of architectonics. There is no architectonics without space. There is a third specific thing in architecture, or rather in architectural aesthetics - proportions. Proportions exist in all other arts, as do space and architectonics. In architectural aesthetics, proportions are usually considered nonspecifically. It seems to me, however, that the proportions also have a tectonic meaning. The ratio of spatial figures that we perceive when looking at a building is a combination of its fragments or the ratio of elements of its tectonics. There are no proportions at all. Thus, the main characteristics of the architecture, i.e. utilitarian function, space and proportions are expressed through architectonics. It is she who is the meaningful connection that turns the building into an integral artistic structure and is the basis of the artistic language of architecture.
Sazonov B.V. When you talk about the language of architecture, it is not clear what kind of load the word "language" itself carries. And if you use it in the accepted sense, then what restrictions do you impose on it?
Marcuson... We are now talking about the means of creating an artistic structure in construction. If such means exist, then they represent a specific language of expressive means of architecture. In the literature, there is still a point of view that this is something indefinite, which architecture uses. We are talking now about the architect's ability to collect artistic structures.
Rappaport A.G. When you say "language", is this not a metaphorical use of the synonym "means of architectural expressiveness."
Sazonov... When they talk about language, they reveal its scope and content, which denotes and denotes, the process of communication, etc. Will you be looking at all of these components of the language?
Marcuson... I will try to consider the most significant ones. The point is to what extent the methods of semiotics are applicable to the means of architecture, to what extent they allow one to speak of these means as a language. This is the subject of my little research. It can be argued that funds from other arts are also being drawn into the realm of tectonics. For example, rhythm is inherent in all types of arts. Naturally, in architecture it acquires a tectonic meaning. Until now, the fact that the horizontal and vertical rhythm is not the same has been overlooked. This difference stems from the tectonic nature of the rhythm. This allows us to assert that the basis of semantics is hidden in each element of the structure and in it as a whole. And semantics rests on tectonic concepts. This allows us to talk about a specific architecture language. The range of tectonic concepts is constantly expanding, starting with the menhir and ending with modern architecture.
Rappaport... What is a tectonic concept?
Marcuson... This, for example, the fight against gravity, stiffening, etc.
Rappaport... What exactly is a tectonic concept?
Marcuson... The tectonic concept is derived from the idea of ​​how to build. At first, there are very few such ideas. I believe that the raising of the menhir was as much a revelation as fire.
Rappaport... Is it possible to understand that tectonics for you is not the structure itself, but the basis of its reflection, that this is education in the sphere of consciousness?
Marcuson... Yes, this is a phenomenon of the sphere of consciousness, which is obtained in the process of working with a stone, etc. Things.
Rappaport... Do you mean that the reflection of an architectural structure is superimposed on what you call tectonic concepts, and tectonic concepts are reflected ways of constructing architectural structures.
Sazonov... So this is a specificity only for the consciousness of the one who is perceiving in a certain way?
Marcuson... Both for the perceiver and for the builder. As for a person brought up in a certain way, a person perceives everything on the basis of existing knowledge, on the basis of what he already knows. All perception is based on apperception. Architecture, being a mass media, is based on the simplest tectonic concepts that have developed by the corresponding time.
Rappaport... I doubt that after the division of labor in construction, perception is characterized by the pattern you have drawn. I even suspect that such a model grew out of special architectural studies that you, in particular, are doing. Indeed, this is a kind of school language of architectural critics, who very often used the word "tectonics".
Marcuson... I want to say about what distinguishes tectonics in the use of the XXX century. from the alleged. For the nineteenth century, architectural form was related to tectonics as in mathematics, an argument refers to a function. The connection was unambiguous. In the proposed concept, tectonics is understood as the semantic basis on which an architect, like a poet, relies on the grammar of a language, when creating a work of art. Playing with tectonically meaningful forms is architecture. Architecture is born out of construction precisely on the basis of the general concepts of construction.
Izvarin E. You called the topic of your message the elucidation of the applicability of the methods of semiotics to architecture. Will you talk specifically about these methods? Secondly, when you bring an analogy of an architect with his semantic basis, which is the tectonics of architecture or construction in general, with a poet using the grammar of a language, do you not combine syntax and semantics, or will these issues also be specially highlighted?
Marcuson... It is useful to continue the analogy between poetry and common language, as well as between architecture as art and construction. Pushkin advised learning the language from the well-educated, and the architect should learn from the mastered building forms and concepts. When creating a truly artistic work, a poet even violates the established norms of language, i.e. grammar. All aspects of semantic consideration should be taken into account here - syntactics, pragmatics, and semantics. The architect does the same. Similar to colloquial polished in the works of outstanding artists who violate the norm, in architecture the masters also violate the norms they were taught and make discoveries. These innovations in both poetry and architecture affect back the general state of language and construction.
Sazonov... I do not understand the analogy between poetry and grammar and the relationship of architecture to tectonics. For example, for me the grammar used by the poet is a means, but not a product. This is not to say that the poet produces this or that type of grammar. He uses grammar when he produces work of fiction... According to your point of view, the tectonics used by the architect is a means, but also a product. What is the product of the architect, in contrast to tectonics, understood as a means?
Marcuson... I understand tectonics not as following the physical laws of tectonics, but as a game. For clarification, I refer to the history of the interpretation of the architectural order. I want to revise the historically formed views on the origin of the orders, which now do not correspond at all to the available archaeological data.
Based on the historical tendency to compare the stone order with wooden architecture, I want to say that there is a metaphor here, i.e. the shortest form of comparison. And display modeling and comparison are the first stages of our knowledge.
Gagkaev... I want to go back to what was said above. When it comes to the Greek order, the play of tectonic means is more or less clear. And what about the Baroque architecture, where tectonics spreads and takes on a formal, or rather amorphous sound?
Marcuson... I want to answer this question below.
So, we have established that there is an image in architecture, a comparison in the form of a very specific form metaphors. And this immediately sets the perspective of semiotic research.
Sazonov... What is the semantics of architecture?
Marcuson... Semantics, i.e. the semantic field of the architect is a set of tectonic ideas, the soil on which the rules of construction grow, and then the game with these rules.
Sazonov... Why is this a semantic field?
Marcuson... The fact is that for every person, architecture is always full of meanings. One has to be spoiled by a special education in order to perceive architecture as a purely abstract art. In the proposed concept, it is tectonic concepts that are put forward as the main ones.
Sazonov... Did I understand correctly that the semantic is used in the sense that what is the meaning behind it?
Marcuson... And above all, the meaning is construction.
Sazonov... Why does the fact that some element performs a function gives the right to speak of meaning? Can't you just mention the function and not talk about the meaning at all? Could you do without the term "semantic field" at all? Do you need it for your personal purposes, or is the person looking at the building obligated to use it? If a person is busy in the field of construction and really resorts to this method, then it does not yet follow that this property is inherent in a person in general and gives the right to a universal approach.
Marcuson... What I mean is that my goal is to find out if the architecture has specific means. It seems to me that such means exist and they are connected by tectonic concepts, i.e. tectonic meanings that catch on over time.
Sazonov... I am not clear why you are resorting to values. For example, the Pythagoreans used numbers. They resorted to the number series, believing that it expresses the universal structure of the world. In architecture, this structure is expressed in numbers and relationships. They did not resort to any values. They had a concept by which everything else was interpreted. Why should a person, looking at a building, see not just a column, but understand that an element has a function, a function has a meaning, etc.?
Marcuson... When you look at a column, you understand that it is a support.
Sazonov... I understand it. I do not perceive the column as a support because I was not raised that way.
Marcuson... From my point of view, a person needs to be specially taught so that he perceives something in this way.
Sazonov... Do you think that our consciousness has a structure that sets just such a perception?
Marcuson... Yes. First of all, our consciousness sees the meaning of all these things. By the way, the Pythagoreans in relation to aesthetics were not limited to the values ​​of the number series. They attributed perfection to numbers, and then began to shift this perfection into different meanings. In music, mathematics has very successfully found its physical embodiment. But this, too, is not yet aesthetics, it is only the physical basis of music. And then already there relations acquire purely sound meanings, it also happens with architecture. But here we mean construction values.
Rappaport... It is important to note that Marcuson does not provide evidence, but only summarizes the concept. From the foregoing, the following semantic cores can be distinguished: 1) refutation of theories that derived the structure of Greek temples from wooden architecture, i.e. genetically derived the order from a wooden structure. Mark. Claims that these forms did not grow genetically, but were deliberately transferred during the design process. That is, consciousness once saw them in reality, separated form and content, then transferred this form into stone and thereby gave this form an image of a wooden structure, emphasizing its conventionality, distorting it within small limits; 2) It was also about the nature of aesthetic perception. It was argued that such an image became the basis for the vision of the building. The building was beautiful not because it had any function, but because this mimesis helped in recognition. People looked at houses and perceived their some ideal meaning. One can argue with this, putting forward various arguments. I propose to listen to the report to the end, and only then formulate a system of counterarguments, without polemicizing in the course of the message.
Sazonov... My questions are for understanding. Multidisciplinary movement, it seems to me, I feel. But terminological material is constantly used, the need for which is unclear to me. You can describe all of the above without resorting to various semiotic terms.
Marcuson... Let's get rid of the term "semantics". It's not about terminology. Certain tectonic representations appear in the forms. Certain tectonic representations appear in the forms.
Rappaport... If the speaker claims that the shapes of the stone are significant, then Sazon's claims are satisfied. Form and content are separated.
Sazonov... The form represents something, i.e. is a form.
Rappaport... If there is an image, then both the depicted and the depicting are present. And if the depicted is some kind of reality, then the fact of referring to it as to the meaning of some specific depicted reality is possible.
Sazonov... If the image has artistic value, how does tectonics relate to this?
Rappaport... About the artistic has not yet been said. In my opinion, "depicts" already makes it possible to speak about language: there is depicted, there is an act of communication ...
Sazonov... The question is, does it depict ...
Rappaport... There is a sign, there is an image ...
Sazonov... It is not known, if there is a depicted and an image, then it does not follow from this that there is a sign and a signified.
Rappaport... This is a meaningful question. Can we talk about semiotic reality?
Sazonov... When we talk about a sign, we must also consider its social use, its functioning, i.e. in addition to this link "signified-denoted" there are many other links in which this reality is included in order to call it sign.
Marcuson... V foreign literature the question of whether it is possible to use the term "sign" and "language" in architecture if the depicting is simultaneously depicted was discussed. The window is a window, etc. Signs must be divided into pictorial and non-pictorial.
Sazonov... This is according to Pierce.
Marcuson... We know of no other semiotics. Just a sign is quite a conventional sign. A pictorial sign is a sign that carries some aspects of what is being depicted. In practice, there can be so many of these moments that it is possible to merge with the depicted.
Rappaport... Let's look at this question genetically. If the sign carries some features of pictoriality, for example, in hieroglyphics, then later it turns out that they are insignificant and are rejected. Cursive writing changes hieroglyphs beyond recognition, and it continues to perform the function of a sign better and better.
Marcuson... Agree. And we will see the same in architecture.
Rappaport... Here it is important to find out on what basis architecture overturns the function of a sign. It may turn out that such a thing is accidental, which is illustrated by an example with hieroglyphs. That there is depiction does not yet prove that there is a sign. Returning to metaphor, the question arises: how can we talk about it when, in the cases of metaphorization known to us, that which is identified by metaphorization is present independently of the act of metaphorization and of the metaphor itself. The point is that the temple does not exist regardless of the metaphor. The temple itself was engendered by metaphor and had no independent meaning before it.
Marcuson... And it didn't even exist. But when a temple exists, it is read in a general context so that the image and the actual structure, the play of tectonics and the actual tectonics are separated. Although it may be unconscious.
Rappaport... For such a statement, a different circle of evidence is needed.
Sazonov... Is it possible to understand that the temple is being built as an image?
Marcuson... It has pictorial elements.
Sazonov... Can we say that a temple is artistic because it has pictorial elements? Or is it artistic and besides the fact that it has pictorial elements?
Marcuson... The artistic does not exist apart from the visual. In isolation from the pictorial and meaningful.
Sazonov... Fine or Meaningful?
Rappaport... Can a temple be considered a caricature of a building?
Marcuson... Caricature as a satirical image?
Rappaport... No, like a distortion.
Marcuson... Metaphor is always distortion. Already the collision of two ideas in one form is a distortion of each of them.
Rappaport... Metaphor has nothing to do with it. The temple does not depict exactly a wooden structure, but there is also a play of tectonics, i.e. a change in these realities, i.e. not a distortion. To distinguish between stylization and caricature, it is necessary to have already developed aesthetic reality.
Sazonov... All this reasoning assumes that art has already taken shape, that this "art" is already known. There is an image, there are different ways of depicting, and it so happened that another element was added to this prevailing reality by means of stone. And if there is a difference between stylization, caricature, etc., then this also applies to stone. Thus, this reasoning does not show the genesis of art in general, or the genesis of the artistic, but the submission under this category of yet another reality, let's say architectural.
Marcuson... The history of the development of the Greek order provides an opportunity to illustrate the selection of tectonic elements and the game with them, presented in such masterpieces as the Parthenon. It is very interesting that the norms used by architects in the construction of temples were violated by outstanding masters. For example, Iktin. Continuing this characteristic, we can talk about the problem of the minimum sign in architecture, etc.
Sazonov... It seems to me that you are imposing on your reasoning two dissimilar schemes, two types of reality. Firstly, are we not implementing, considering the Parthenon or the temple of Apollo, some modernization by superimposing our ideas of what is behind it on the author himself. At the same time, we believe that he implemented it. It may turn out that the task of training an architect, the availability and examination of samples, has given rise to a special research language, which acted as the norm for subsequent architects. It follows from this that for the analysis of the history of architecture you need, it is necessary to include a broader reality in it: the training of the architect, changes in the forms of culture, etc. And it may be that semioticism appears in the process of translation of culture, and not in architecture as such (if it is possible to dismember this way).
Marcuson... I am not sure about this, it needs to be considered. If we talk about the learning process, then it is necessary to investigate the changes, distortions of the norms that the architect is taught. The same Iktinus, the author of the Parthenon, changed the norms he received from the archaic. Consider, for example, the scale of the Parthenon, noted by me and the Andes. Burov, and other researchers. From a distance, he seems very large, but close, on the contrary, a person seems to himself big next to him. Such a game of scale was not used by archaic architects.
Rappaport... Why was it a game?
Marcuson... Because the proportions that had developed as standard the day before were changed.
Rappaport... Why did Iktin need this game?
Marcuson... In order to create a certain effect.
Rappaport... How do we know this?
Marcuson... Do you need evidence from contemporaries or later researchers?
Rappaport... I need the author's opinion of Iktin himself.
Marcuson... It can be indirectly judged by its later constructions.
Rappaport... In such things, only the author's certificate can be reliable, for in other cases we are dealing with interpretations or interpretations of the author's intentions.
Marcuson... Vitruvius read Iktin, but was too compiled to convey anything to us.
Izvarin... You say that Iktin violated the norm, but was it fixed?
Marcuson... Vitruvius assures that it was recorded in their treatises already by the 3rd century.
Rappaport... Z It is important to emphasize two points here. On the one hand, we can assume that Iktin did not follow the norms that were fixed before him in the archaic. It is a fact. The question arises - why did he do that. There can be different interpretations here. Let us conditionally assume that he was a mystic, changing the proportions of temples, following other norms, norms of numerical mysticism, and not at all the language game that you attribute to him. And you do this in order to form a concept with which you hope to explain the art of architecture.
Marcuson... Of course, and if someone comes up with a stronger concept, this will have to be abandoned.
Rappaport... However, besides other concepts, there are also counterarguments. Let me give you an example. If the result obtained by you in the analysis of the order architecture of antiquity is universal, then it can be used to explain the architectural creativity of other countries and eras. Can you apply it for analysis artistic means Russian wooden architecture, in which, as it seems to me, there are no significant figurative elements at all, but only the wooden structure itself.
Marcuson... I am not saying that graphic elements are necessary, the game is played with all sorts of tectonic representations (length of the ends, depth of the cut, height of the roof, etc.). The simplest wooden structure is a log house. This is just the basis on which the game is played. I suggest another example - a pyramid. The pyramid had many sacred and other meanings that need to be revealed in a general cultural analysis and which are unknown to the modern viewer. However, the architecture was supposed to perpetuate the memory of the pharaoh and the symbol of eternity it has quite distinct. This is due to the fact that its shape is subject to the laws of natural slope (as when you pour sand). This form is absolutely inert, the form of absolute rest, i.e. eternity. Everything that was symbolically embedded in it was expressed in a very vivid tectonic way - peace and immutability. Iktin, for example, used images of perpetual motion (Plutarch notes that Iktin's buildings seemed to grow forever, always seemed young).
Rappaport... It seems to me that this is a significant deviation from the original models. As for the sand, poured into a heap and symbolizing eternity tectonically, it seems to me that this is an accidental parallel. A pile of sand does not bear any image of eternity by itself.
Marcuson... She carries the image of immobility, absolute stability.
Rappaport... He poured a pile, destroyed it and went on. No stillness, no eternity.
Marcuson... But such a handful as a pyramid had the shape of a monolithic stone cube of 100 meters in height, do you think it would no longer symbolize eternity?
Marcuson... If you propose a hypothesis for the symbolic effect of a cube, similar to the hypothesis for the effect of a pyramid, then your argument will gain interest. Until then, it is completely abstract.
Rappaport... From my point of view, this is quite enough to object to you. Let us recall at least the Kaaba cube. But not necessarily him. It is easy to imagine that the shapes of a bell, ball, hemisphere, pillar, etc. can symbolize eternity quite figuratively. It seems to me that in such a type of culture as the Egyptian, symbolic meaning-making is so difficult that the direct course “sand - law of natural slope - eternity” is not exploratively justified.
Marcuson... I think they are justified insofar as they continue to affect us.
Rappaport... This is another matter. We were brought up in such a way that the pyramid is associated with eternity, because once at school they learned that the pharaohs were buried in the pyramids. It is important for me to emphasize that when you talk about the pyramid, you changed the way of thinking that you demonstrated when discussing the origin and development of the Greek order. If there you relied on such a set of facts that allowed you to reason quickly, all the time correlating your hypothesis with counterarguments and real facts, then now you have adopted a method that could be called mythological and which is so widespread in our aesthetic and theoretical-architectural literature.
Sazonov... Earlier you talked about tectonic meanings and about playing with them, and moving on to the pyramid, you began to talk about symbol and symbolism.
Marcuson... I would like to separate these things and leave the pyramid only that relates to tectonics. Our tectonic ideas are in any case not poorer than the Egyptian ones, and the Egyptians perceived the pyramid in about the same way as we do.
Sazonov... Can you understand that at first the architecture used the means of depicting the structure, and then moved on to the game?
Marcuson... Not certainly in that way. The original metaphor for Greek architecture was the depiction of a wooden structure in stone. But then it became common or, as they say in linguistics, a lexical metaphor. Then the stone, order architecture itself becomes the subject of the image. And this is the meaning of the game.
Order architecture began its second life back in Greece. In the Roman era, when builders mastered concrete and the methods of overlapping large spaces, the order began to play an even more minor role, moving from the category of tectonic elements to the category of decor. The column is placed against the wall and does not openly bear any load. In the Renaissance, when an order appears again, it already has the meaning of a social code. The order is used to decorate public buildings and palaces of noble nobles. His connection with the tree is completely erased from memory. If in antiquity the order was used only for the construction of temples and public buildings, then after the Renaissance it marks primarily the nobility and wealth of the private owner. In the Baroque era, the order is used completely arbitrarily (bends, bends) in order to emphasize the massiveness of the wall.
Rappaport... And were other meanings depicted using the order, not tectonic, for example, antique temple?
Marcuson... Temples were created, but not depicted.
Rappaport... I mean the Madeleine Christian Church in Paris.
Marcuson... This is a different era: classicism, empire, etc. The fact is that after the emergence of the academies of art and architecture, what is called the dance of styles, stylization, began. In this era, the use of the order departs even more from its tectonic basis. Using an order in this form turns out to be ineffective, almost does not appeal to our feelings, appealing to our educational background. It took the architectural revolution of our century for all these decorative techniques of architectural speech to be discarded by the new architecture, which again began to look for means of architectural expressiveness in tectonics, i.e. in the structure, first declaring that it is enough to simply show new structures to make the structure beautiful (a declaration of the early constructivists). However, the constructivists themselves, creating their works, did not adhere to these declarations. They did not so much reveal the structure as depicted it, played with constructive forms. This is the tower of Einstein, Eich Mendelssohn, depicting concrete in brick structures, these are the works of the constructivists of the 1920s, who made tape windows on the facade that did not correspond to the structure of the building. The best way to trace this game is the example of such an outstanding architect as Le Corbusier. He began with calls for prefabricated housing construction, with a naked structure, he ended up with the Ronshan Chapel, in which one can no longer see the structure, but the “hand of the master”, harmony with the landscape. The forked pillars of his house in Marseille are not pillars, but only represent them. In fact, these are cases for communications. Thus, Corbusier, starting with appeals to expose the structure, ended up playing, depicting it. The finest pieces of modern architecture are witnessing the same method. In the sports facilities of the Tokyo Olympics, Kenzo Tange uses cable-stayed structures, and he himself admits this, other graphic elements: sails, barges, etc. V modern architecture space is playing an increasingly important role. However, space is created by a structure and does not exist without it (like a hole without a donut). Therefore, tectonic meanings continue to be the basis architectural language... Of course, elements of the languages ​​of other arts penetrate into architecture: painting, cinema. But the works obtained with their help can no longer be classified as purely architectural and, let's talk about this frankly, they turn out to be something like an opera. Perhaps some architect will create a work as synthetic as those to which Wagner aspired. But this will no longer be pure architecture. At the same time, the specific language of architecture will also remain, at least as long as there are structures, gravity forces and the need to overcome it in construction, as well as the possibility of violating the prevailing architectural norms. This is where I finished, the rest is questions.
I myself am still unclear to what extent semiotic analysis can be applied in architecture. We have seen that in architecture there is a metaphor, comparison, architecture is somewhat reminiscent of natural language, for it develops simultaneously with the development of thinking (architectural thinking). Architecture, as well as language, is influenced by the learning process. But to what extent their analogy applies is unclear. There are also controversial issues... For example, the question about the minimum sign. A. Ikonnikov, in his article on the language of architecture in Zh. "Construction and Architecture of Leningrad" defines the minimum sign as two columns, architrave and the space between them. But if we agree with this understanding of the minimum sign, then the difference between the light order of the Parthenon and the heavy order of Paestum disappears. Perhaps one column can be taken as the minimum sign? The same does not work, since the column itself is already intoned, it can be light and heavy, have or not have entasis, although its full meaning is revealed only in the context of the entire structure. In order to understand where is the boundary of the application of semiotic concepts in architecture and to avoid mistakes like Ikonnikov's mistake, it is necessary to deal with this issue.
Sazonov... Can you understand that architecture has always developed at the intersection of constructive construction activities and art, as a way of sculptural comprehension and expression?
Marcuson... No, this cannot be done, because I call architecture only artistic buildings, in which art is not superimposed on a structure, but uses it for artistic purposes.
Sazonov... Is it possible to contrast your view of the nature of artistic architectural thinking with that which can be called Gestalt? From your point of view, artistic creation is a game or arrangement of elements that have a certain tectonic meaning into an artistic whole. From another point of view, the whole is not composed, but precedes as a whole in artistic thinking by its element. From this point of view, the question of elementary meaning is meaningless.
Marcuson... I have not considered this possibility, but it seems that it does not fundamentally change anything.
Sazonov... Then I would ask you to summarize your report and say what follows from it, whether this result serves any purpose or represents itself of value.
Marcuson... Let's start at the end. Accepting my position requires a complete overhaul of the teaching system in architecture universities. First of all, teaching the history of architecture, since the previous schemes for explaining the history of the order, for example, break down under the onslaught of archaeological facts.
Sazonov... So your schema grasps the story.
Marcuson... Secondly, it is reflected in the formation of the thinking of a young architect. She teaches him to pay attention to the possibilities that are still hidden in new structures (Mark. Provides examples of the use of tectonic pipes in Japanese architecture as an example of such a successful use and treatment of new constructive possibilities). My findings will allow the architect to be more conscious about any new constructive opportunity in the field of construction. This scheme does not obstruct the architecture of the possibility further development.
Izvarin... I didn't understand the role of grammar. Let's say it can be fixed. But, as your historical overview suggests, a good architect necessarily breaks grammar. It is not clear to me how one can use the established grammar, if in order to create a work of art, it must be broken.
Marcuson... The grammar itself doesn't break very often. And breaking it down means that a new grammar is being created. But on the basis of the old one, a sufficient number of good works architecture (just as good prose can be created from a language grammar).
Sazonov... Thus, the historian's task is to identify grammar for each stage in the development of architecture, and the teacher's task is to create grammar for today.
Marcuson... Not only. The teacher should train the architect to be able to break grammar, if the opportunity presents itself.
Rappaport... It seems to me that for the members of our seminar, and perhaps for the speaker, it will not be useless to try to methodologically analyze this interesting and very informative report. First of all, the fact is that it touches on, poses and proposes solutions to many problems and questions, and these tasks and questions themselves sometimes lie in the implementation of various plans and levels of the theory of architecture, and sometimes they turn out to be completely outside the theory of architecture and can relate to common problems theory of creativity, theory of art, semiotics. So, it seems to me, the report made an attempt to substantiate the view of the nature of "artistic", including artistic creation, as a game within the framework of some culturally legalized system of symbols (grammar). This idea applies not only to architecture, but to art in general. Several significant issues remain open to me with this idea. 1. How the grammar in question is set and defined within its boundaries. Why is this set of symbols generally identified with the grammar, i.e. ultimately language. 2. From this a direct question to the problem of the game. Why is the language used primarily not for "conversation", i.e. not in the communication function, but in the function of the material for the game. Finally 3. What does the game mean in this context, what are its conditions, external characteristics, internal rules, how they are set, and how the game type of activity is specifically determined in general. These questions refer to one outline of the analysis, one of your ideas.
Another group of questions is related to your attempt to see, define and describe the use of a particular language of art, the language of architecture. The question of language in your report falls into several groups of problems. The first of them concerns the genesis of the language of architecture, its origin from tectonic symbols and meanings. In connection with this question, it seems that the general semantic nature of architectural thinking is being clarified. Another group of problems concerns the use of ready-made linguistic forms. This use, again, breaks down, on the one hand, into use in creativity, in the design process, and on the other hand, in the process of perceiving architecture, in other words, in the life of culture as such.
Finally, a completely new range of issues, which could be called methodological, is associated with the discussion of the possibility of using the concepts and models developed by modern semiotics to discuss architectural and, more broadly, artistic issues... To move systematically in this study, it is necessary, in my opinion, to clearly outline in advance the range of issues and problems that have arisen within the framework of artistic or architectural practice (theory) and those semiotics means that are considered suitable for their solution. And although at the beginning of your lecture you drew attention to this particular range of issues, their discussion never took place.
Perhaps I was mistaken in my attempt to reflect the semantic structure of your message, or I did not fully reflect it, I missed something. You must correct me. But in any case, you can only discuss all the issues raised by you by dividing them in advance, since each of them requires special logic and special rules.
As for the content of the report itself, I have only one, but very serious, doubt or remark. It seems to me that it does not pay attention to historicism or the historical development of the object itself (architecture) and all the mechanisms included in it. At a certain period in a certain country, perhaps architecture developed a certain language, its semantic basis was tectonic representations in the form in which you described it. But in other conditions, everything could be different.
Marcuson... In what?
Rappaport... From my point of view, Russian wooden architecture does not contain those tectonic meanings that you are talking about.
Marcuson... But what about the transfer of forms of stone architecture to wood and vice versa?
Rappaport... This phenomenon is associated with the penetration of Byzantine and Western architectures into Russia, and it is also strictly localized. The pyramid example we discussed above further strengthened my belief that the problems of architecture are always organically intertwined with the problems of general cultural evolution. Both architectural creativity and the perception of architecture are each time specifically determined by the sum of cultural norms of social existence. When they see them as a single mechanism, they most often do it from the point of view of their culture and in the name of the goals that lie within it. More specifically, to see a single mechanism of architectural creativity and perception means to see all architecture through the prism of one's own norms of architectural creativity and perception of architecture.

Architecture is related to painting and graphics, as it operates with lines like them. But while painting and graphics are able to create only the illusion of space on a plane, architecture fully owns the depth of space. Architecture is akin to sculpture - these arts operate with masses and volumes. But at a time when sculpture shapes the mass only from the outside, architecture is able to give shape to the mass both from the outside and from the inside (interiors and exteriors). Further, it would seem that architecture in its content is the simplest of all types of arts. She is able to embody only very specific, unambiguous ideas and feelings: architecture, for example, lacks humor. It can be assumed that architecture should become the most honorable and most popular art. But in reality we see something different: this art turned out to be difficult and inaccessible, its language is understandable and attractive only to very few. The fact is that architecture, on the one hand, is the most material, most material, and, on the other, the most abstract art. Being a quite concrete part of nature, serving the most real and utilitarian purposes, architecture is at the same time expressed in signs, numbers, and abstract relationships. In addition, there is no doubt that architecture differs from all other arts, first of all, by the longest process of creation. The job of an architect can sometimes take a lifetime. In addition, "the architect does not open up to the viewer to the extent that a poet or musician can. In each, the most random, most arbitrary play of the architect's fantasy, the spirit of that society, the collective that the architect serves" is revealed. *
Art history tells us
about many headstrong, rebellious artists, whose activities were in continuous conflict with the tastes of their time. They were either rejected by the era, or they themselves neglected it. An architect, however, cannot exist completely divorced from his time, absolutely free from social functions. In no art does the customer (in the narrowest and broadest sense, as an individual owner and as the voice of the era) play such an important role as in architecture.
If in relation to painting and sculpture the expression is sometimes quite acceptable: - "style is a person", then in relation to architecture it would be much more correct to say that "style is an era".
However, if this close fusion of architecture with society, culture, era testifies, on the one hand, to the extremely important cultural functions thereof, then, on the other hand, it is also the cause of a very tragic property, namely, the fatal impracticability of many architectural ideas and designs. ... This art far surpasses all others in the number of such works that have remained at the stage of the project, on paper, in the artist's fantasy. At the same time, as it may seem paradoxical, it is precisely with the development of civilization that the number of unbuilt architectural monuments is increasing.
Nevertheless, architecture reflects the social person and the reality in which he is included. And this means that it is architecture, as a documentary stone chronicle that captures the pages of history, that truly conveys the spirit of the era to us, tells about the life of society, its views and ideology.
We will comprehend the book of architecture, learn the language of architecture.

Architecture is the art of creating buildings and structures according to the laws of beauty, a system of buildings and structures that form spatial environment for the life and work of people.
There are three main types of architecture:
1 - architecture of volumetric structures (includes residential buildings; public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops); industrial buildings (power plant factories, etc.);
2 - landscape architecture (mainly associated with the organization of garden and park space);
3 - urban planning (covers the creation of new cities and towns, the reconstruction of old urban areas). The city planner chooses the territory, outlines the placement of residential, public and industrial zones, connecting them with transport routes, provides for the possibility of further expansion of the city, the location of new urban ensembles.
Architecture as art differs from simple construction in the ability to depict, evoke certain feelings and moods. If you think about the constructive techniques of some architectural style, you will notice two constructions: one real, laid out in stone, fixing the statics of the building; another imaginary, shown only by directions and a combination of lines.
Let's turn to antiquity, i.e. to art Ancient Greece and Ancient rome.
The ancient masters developed a strictly thought out and logically grounded system of relationships between the bearing and the bearing parts of the building. This system is called an order. In the era of antiquity, order was the main means of purposeful construction and artistic expression, that is, in architectural styles based on the use of an order, the imaginary construction is closer to the real one. Nevertheless, the variety of means of expression is striking, reflecting the triumph of slave-owning democracy based on the idea of ​​the broadest participation of free citizens in government, the triumph of social principles over personal, duty over feeling.
Order acts as a system of elements on the basis of which, using certain rules, an infinite number of combinations can be created. Order elements are not impersonal units. They are not interchangeable even within a single structure - each fragment is individualized. This determines the uniqueness of each building.
Let's analyze the constructive techniques of the Gothic. Here the real structure, which fixes the statics of the building and the imaginary one, thanks to which the forms are given dynamics, lightness, continuous aspiration upwards, stands out most clearly. In this irrepressible ascent of all lines to the sky, the idea of ​​a Gothic temple was embodied - the mystical fusion of man with God.
The same analysis can be applied to any style, any piece of artistic architecture. There is always a real structure that determines the stability of the building and the visible, depicted, expressed in the direction of lines, in relation to planes and masses, in the struggle of light and shadow, which will give the building vital energy, embody its spiritual and emotional meaning.
Necessity, strength, convenience - on the one hand, and beauty, the ability to evoke certain feelings and moods in the audience - on the other, are an obligatory property of an artistic structure. Functional, constructive, aesthetic qualities: benefit, strength, beauty - are interconnected in architecture. The creative search for the most interesting spatial composition, artistic finishing of the surface of the building being created are the essence of the architect's work. When designing, the architect is looking for the most harmonious combination of the main parts of the future architectural work and its details.
However, the choice of the composition is not arbitrary, since the architect is obliged to reckon with the purpose of the structures, the climate of the area where the construction is being carried out, and the surroundings of the future building. For example: the function of a building, its purpose determine the size, dimensions of the internal space, and therefore the external shape of the building.
One cannot but agree that it is more convenient to watch a movie in a spacious hall without windows and with a sloping floor (in the cinema there is a large, blank box of the hall). And in a residential building there are many rooms with windows and balconies. This is how the function sets the structure characteristic appearance... Climate, landscape, soil relief, architectural surroundings may have their own requirements to the architect.
The influence of climate affects primarily the orientation of buildings and the layout of cities. The north is dominated by a southerly direction and a tendency towards the widest possible streets. The huge width of the streets in St. Petersburg is caused by the desire to give sunbeams more free access and this determines the extremely large scale of its monuments. In contrast, southern residents tend to avoid the hot sun, so the streets southern city often amaze northerners with their narrowed layout. The southern cities are characterized by an abundance of porticoes, covered galleries that line the streets.
In different historical periods, various building materials and structures were used, corresponding to the technical development of their time. New designs influenced architectural forms. For example, in Ancient egypt the main building material was stone and post-and-beam type of structures. To cover a large space, it was necessary to put many supports at a distance of three to four meters from each other. The room turned out to be cramped, like a stone forest. The architects of Ancient Rome, thanks to the invention of concrete and the use of arched vaulted and domed structures, significantly increased the distance between the supports.
Organizational value in architectural composition belongs to the rhythm, i.e. a clear distribution of individual volumes and building details that are repeated at a certain interval (grouping of columns, windows, sculptures). The alternation of individual elements in a vertical direction is called a vertical rhythm. It gives the building from the outside the impression of lightness, upward aspiration. Alternating parts in a horizontal direction - horizontal rhythm (gives the building stability)
By collecting and condensing details in one place and discharging them in another, the architect can emphasize the center of the composition, give the building a dynamic or static character.
Another means of architectural composition is scale. It does not depend on the actual size of the building, but on the general impression that the building makes on a person. For example: in modern microdistricts, public buildings (shopping center, cinema) are always smaller in volume than multi-storey residential buildings, but they give the impression of being the main, large-scale ones, due to the larger divisions of their forms. Such buildings are said to be of large scale. Some buildings have a symmetrical composition (the same arrangement of individual elements relative to the axis of symmetry), others are asymmetrical, where the main part of the building is shifted away from the center, which leads to a dynamic architectural image.
The main artistic means of the architect are open and closed spaces, the volumes of buildings and the enclosing surfaces of structures. The architect can make these spaces communicating or isolated, illuminated or darkened, calm or dynamic; volumes heavy or light, simple or complex; elements of enclosing surfaces are flat or embossed, dull or openwork, plain or colorful - while achieving consistency of artistic means, which leads to harmony. The language of architecture is rich and complex. And only with the coordinated use of all means and techniques does a vivid artistic expressive architectural image emerge. This is the creative search of the architect. The best architectural buildings and ensembles are remembered as a symbol of countries and cities. The whole world knows the ancient Acropolis in Athens, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, Red Square in Moscow.

* - Vipper B.R. "An Introduction to the Historical Study of Art". M. Fine arts. 1985 year

Continuation:
The architecture of the era of classicism in Odessa.

Oksana LOKTEVA,
candidate of pedagogical sciences,
lecturer at the Moscow Institute
open education

The language of art:
how to reveal the secret of architecture to children

Continuation. See # 12, 13, 15/06.

In the MHC lesson, the teacher repeatedly has to analyze and disassemble architectural structures. Not fully knowing the peculiarities of architecture, its differences from other types of art, its linguistic means, we involuntarily try to replace the analysis of art with other, more accessible material. But if we understand the language of architecture, it will help us as a universal tool throughout many topics.

Topics can be studied sequentially, or you can devote the entire 5th grade to a detailed study of the languages ​​of the arts. And then the guys will receive a guiding thread from the very beginning, with the help of which the subsequent material will be easily comprehended. If it seems to you that it is not worth “wasting” the entire 5th grade on this, give two or three lessons on each type of art, and give the rest of the knowledge at the beginning of each year. This will also greatly facilitate the study of the languages ​​of art.

Principles for Studying the Arts:

Consideration of the scheme - the classification of types of art, the definition of the studied type of art, its linguistic means.

Comparison with other types of art, highlighting the characteristics of the studied.

Orientation in the types, genres and forms of works of art of this type.

Analysis of the artistic image created by the author, the initial definition of their relationship to a particular work of art.

Determination of the purpose of creating a work of art, characterization of those artistic means that work for this purpose.

Composition.

Characteristics this type of art (for architecture - styles).

Expression of your attitude towards a work of art.

The first two principles are implemented in the lesson, the rest, as they study, are drawn up into a memo, which, at the same time, is suitable for analyzing specific works.

Memo

1. Determine the type and subspecies of architecture to which the considered work belongs.
2. Explain what kind of artistic image the structure gives rise to, characterize it, expressing your own attitude.
3. What is the purpose of the structure and how is it reflected in the architectural forms?
4. Describe the structure of the building, what are its features.
5. Describe the material used in the construction and the features of its decor.
6. Consider the composition of the building:

Shape and silhouette
- plan,
- symmetry - asymmetry,
- contrast in juxtaposition of parts,
- how the composition center was identified,
- is the structure architectonic,
- whether the proportions are observed or violated,
- rhythm - how it manifests itself, what it is,
- whether the structure is large-scale in relation to a person or its size does not take into account a person,
- how the building is related to environment- natural, urban,

7. Describe the architectural style.
8. Return to your attitude again, confirm or change it.

The material can be categorized as follows.

CLASS 5:

The concept of an architectural image,
- the shape and silhouette of the building,
- architectural forms,
- constructions,
- material.

6TH GRADE:

Plan,
- symmetry – asymmetry,
- contrast of parts,
- highlighting the compositional center,
- rhythm,
- connection of the building with the natural environment.

7TH GRADE:

Architectonics,
- proportions,
- scale.

8TH GRADE:

Stylistics.

We will acquaint readers with a detailed explanation of the material on each point of the memo in a number of the following articles, and today we will talk about comparing architecture with other types of art, about the features of architecture, and also provide a short material on the types and subspecies of architecture.

The definition of an art form, familiarization with its language, repetition of the concept of "artistic image" and its expression (second point of the memo) will be presented in the form of an introductory lesson on the topic "Architecture as an art form".

general information

- comparison of architecture with other types arts (the material can be used in the lesson in the 5th grade);

- highlighting the features of architecture(for teacher only);

- types and subspecies of architecture(the material can be used in the lesson in grade 5).

Comparison of architecture with other forms of art

• Architecture is related to decorative and applied art by its utilitarian practical purpose. As in the decorative arts, architecture values ​​ancient materials, the processing of which can traditionally be repeated or replayed. An example is wood, which for architecture did not disappear with the advent of metal, glass and reinforced concrete. As huts were built in ancient times, so they do it now. The same thing happens in old crafts, such as Dymkovo or Filimonov toys - traditions are preserved and enriched.

• Architecture is related to sculpture with volume, but at the same time, as we have already noticed, the volume of architecture is more complex, including external and internal space. The second difference is that the form for sculpture is in many cases the determining factor for understanding and disclosing an artistic image. Form is also contained in modeling - the interpretation of volume, in the poses and gestures of the characters, and in the location of the sculpture, it is closely related to dynamics or statics. In architecture, a form of art that is more difficult to understand, the form is only the first step in the disclosure of the concept; many other factors that we have to understand will influence the disclosure of the image.

• With painting and graphics, architecture, like other types of art, has in common the possibility of creating an artistic image (more on this later), although in painting and graphics, an artistic image often bears the imprint of individuality, subjectivity, while architecture in to a greater extent have objective features social development at one stage or another. What distinguishes these types art then that flatness is clearly expressed in painting and graphics, and complex volume in architecture. Chromaticity acts in painting as a determining factor, and in architecture - as a side, additional. Another difference lies in the unambiguous utility of architectural works, because not a single structure is built simply for beauty, to the detriment of its practical use; painting and graphics do not have such a pronounced practical significance. But why do we compare architecture with these particular art forms? Why not with music, literature, cinema, dance, theater? The point is that architecture belongs to the family of spatial art forms. In contrast, there are temporary forms of art that last in time and do not occupy a specific place.
  As a spatial form of art, architecture, oddly enough, is at the same time a temporal NS m view. Why? But because, walking along the facade of the building, along the enfilades of rooms, we discover more and more new angles and views. With the passage of time, we are imbued with the artistic image of architecture, we get to know it better. Therefore, a feature of architecture is its spatial and temporal existence as an art form. What are the other features of this art form?

Features of the architecture

The Roman architect Vitruvius in his work "Ten Books on Architecture" put forward three requirements for structures: utility, strength and beauty. It is clear that benefit comes first, because we have already said that any architectural structure is built for something, with a purpose. It is this expediency that determines its appearance, material, size, decor, place in the building, etc. Thus:

1. The main requirement is "benefit", or the functional side of architecture, that is, why the structure is being built. The purpose of the building affects, firstly, the choice of materials, and secondly, the use of certain architectural forms - components of any structure: from the foundation and support walls to the roof.

2. The second requirement of Vitruvius - "strength" includes understanding constructions underlying the structure, or constructive side of architecture... We are going to get acquainted with the post-and-beam, cross-domed and frame Gothic systems, the arched vault system. From just one listing, it is clear that architecture as a form of art has its specificity, it is not so much visual art as constructive art, more related to technology. Any innovation in technology or materials immediately affects the development of architecture: new structures, architectural forms appear, in which more advanced materials are used.

If the structure is strong and the building is stable, then people who contemplate it will have a feeling of satisfaction. If we feel instability, then involuntarily there is a rejection of the structure, a desire to look away. This is how a person is arranged, and this has always been taken into account and is now taken into account in construction.

3. The third requirement is "beauty", or aesthetic side of architecture... Both usefulness and strength should be expressed in beautiful form, and this is the aesthetic side of any structure. This includes decorative elements and the use of color. The aesthetic side is extremely important for a person, because we see works of architecture more often than works of painting, graphics, sculpture. Even the most indifferent to art person who has never entered picture gallery or a museum that has not opened an illustrated book and has not stopped in front of a sculpture is forced to walk around the city, involuntarily absorbing the appearance of buildings, obeying their rhythm and beauty. And since buildings surround us from all sides, they educate our aesthetic taste and must be beautiful.

Having understood the three features of architecture, we will define the topic of conversation about this form of art. First you need to understand the functional side, then the constructive and aesthetic. Having understood the essence of these aspects of architecture, we can easily move on to the features of the composition. Having got acquainted with them, let's consider the features of the styles. And then the language of architecture will reveal its secrets to us. Let's write down for ourselves the plan of our conversation in the form of a diagram.

SCHEME

But before talking with children about all these aspects of architecture, it is necessary to start with the most important thing - the artistic image that creates this or that architectural work. How can you explain to the guys what an artistic image is? The concept of an artistic image, its objective and subjective character were revealed in the introductory lesson. In the lesson on architecture, this material is only repeated.

Types and subspecies of architecture

The definition of types and subspecies of architecture is very well given by A.M. Vachyants in the manual “Variations of the Beautiful. Introduction to MHK ". Let's use this material.

There are three types of architecture: architectural structures, landscape architecture, and urban planning. Each species has its own subspecies. So, buildings can be public (the guys themselves can give an example, you must definitely look at several images), residential and industrial. Landscape architecture includes city squares, boulevards, parks (you can mix several slides: Tverskoy Boulevard, a new residential building, a factory, Tsaritsyno park, Bolshoi theater, Kuskovo estate - the guys have to determine what type of architecture the buildings belong to). Urban planning is engaged in the design of cities and towns (you can talk about how Moscow expanded and developed by itself, in contrast to St. Petersburg, which was originally created with the help of a ruler and a compass). A.M. Vachyants gives a schematic interpretation of the types and subspecies of architecture. Having slightly modified it, we bring it to your attention.

SCHEME.

Introductory lesson

topics "Architecture as an art form" in the 5th grade

1. The concept of "architecture", the language of architecture.

Teacher.Now you have to guess the riddle. You are ready? (Children answer.)

I won't say anything more, but I will show you something. Whoever looks closely will see what kind of art will be discussed today.

The teacher assembles a house from wooden blocks. He does this on a stool or on the chair that is on the first desk. It is better to create a house from parts of two colors - so that the parts of the designer alternate with each other. The structure may resemble a Greek temple made of columns, and on top is a sheet of paper in the form of a roof and a pediment, or it may be an ordinary house, but always with an entrance and interior. Finally, the structure is ready.

Teacher. What have I created?

Students. An ordinary building.

Teacher. What kind of art does this building belong to?

Students. To construction.

Teacher. You are almost right, because in Greek "architecton" means "builder". What can you call a type of art associated with construction?

Students. Architecture.

Teacher. That's right, architecture, architecture is the art of building buildings.

(Writes the topic of the lesson on the chalkboard.)

Who will come up with a symbol for this art form?

The guys find the symbol of this type of art in the scheme - the classification of types of art. Its symbol is once again sketched in a notebook (if the children are sufficiently prepared, one can compare architecture with other forms of art).

Teacher.Think, what is the language of architecture - with the help of what an architectural structure communicates with us?

Students.Architecture speaks to us in the language of wooden blocks.

Teacher. Yes, our house was created from them. Architecture speaks to us in the language of a certain volumetric mass, how could it be otherwise, because we build from volumetric massive blocks! For a hut, these bulk masses are wooden trunks, for a stone structure - stone, for a residential building - reinforced concrete. But in all structures there will be a mass, a mass of material.

What does mass create? We saw that there was an empty chair, and then suddenly a house appeared. What was created with the help of the mass?

After much deliberation, amendments and disputes, the guys come to the conclusion that a space has been created, and two at once - internal and external (that's why we created a house with an entrance, with the ability to put a doll inside).

Teacher.Architecture creates internal and external space - the external is visible from the outside, the internal is revealed to us when we enter the building itself.

How did I stack the mass of material that creates space? I didn’t just put one wooden block on top of another. I observed something, some order. Who will guess which one?

Students.You built a house by laying out bars of different colors in succession, alternating them, that is, observing the rhythm.

Teacher. Right! In architecture, rhythm, that is, alternation, always appears. Let's take a look at the buildings and try to see the rhythm.

The Winter Palace is shown to the children. The teacher asks to find the same architectural forms, shows how they alternate. Being close to each other, they create a cheerful, joyful rhythm. Pupils notice that half-columns, windows, cornice balusters, and a sculpture on the roof alternate. (Until children become familiar with architectural forms, it is difficult for them to see what to pay attention to, so the teacher can do it with them for the first time.)

Teacher.If the rhythm at the Winter Palace is vigorous, frequent and, passing by this building, we want to walk just as cheerfully and joyfully, then the rhythm of the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin is completely different.

The guys are watching the picture.

What alternates in this structure? What creates the rhythm?(Semicolumns, zakomars - arches, narrow windows.) How do we want to walk near this building? Just as cheerfully, quickly?

No, decorously, thoroughly, solemnly, after all, the half-columns, and the zakomars, and the windows are far from each other, they give rise to a feeling of peace and solemnity.

You see, each building, thanks to the rhythm, carries its own mood. And now for a difficult task. Please listen to a children's song and tell me how it looks like an architectural structure.

The song "A grasshopper was sitting in the grass" is played. During the performance, the teacher begins to clap to the beat, involuntarily prompting the children to do so. Soon, the whole class is clapping to the music.

Teacher.What have you heard the same?(Silence.) And what did you and I do while singing?

Students.They clapped.

Teacher.And how we clapped, just like that - who where?

Students.No, we clapped to the beat, rhythmically.

Teacher.What is the same in music and architecture?

Students.Both in music and in architecture there is a rhythm, only in music do we hear it, but in an architectural work we see and feel it.

Teacher.It is true, we made one most important discovery, which not all people know about, but only the most attentive, sensitive ones. And probably now you can explain to me why architecture is called "frozen music"?

(The guys express their opinions).

The architecture language is written in a schema. Pupils, taking part in the creation of the diagram, then transfer it to the notebook.

SCHEME.

2. Types and subspecies of architecture

Teacher.We talked about the language of architecture. And what does this art form generally do? What works does he create?

The guys express their opinions. After listening to the answers, the teacher asks to look at the diagram "Types of architecture" and for three minutes, working in pairs, name which works architecture creates - what types they can be divided into. After checking the work, the teacher suggests talking about the subtypes of architecture, showing slides. The scheme is written down in a notebook.

3. The concept of an artistic image, finding the right words for its expression

Teacher.We talked about the means by which architecture speaks to us. But a person can also speak: in words, in phrases, but it is very important what he will tell us about. It often happens that the meaning of speech depends on who is speaking. Let's imagine that boys and girls came to visit you, they began to talk about their loved ones computer games... Will boys and girls share the same story?

Students.No .

Teacher.Why different games?

Students.Because they are different, they have different interests, each one chooses his own.

Teacher.Exactly as you said - chooses his own. Children choose different games for themselves, and adults choose their way of life, their clothes, their home. And when we create, we create completely different works art. And why?

Students.Because we are all different, we express ourselves in different ways.

Teacher.And what is the name of this complex concept - "express yourself in your own way"?

If the children remember the introductory lesson or open the notes in the notebook, they will name it: “artistic image”.

Teacher.Image - vision, representation; artistic - created according to the laws of an individual, "unique".

The work of architecture was also created by people. What do you think, but it was created according to the laws of the artistic image, in it people expressed themselves, their desires, their thoughts, feelings?

Let's take a look at different works of architecture and try to read the thoughts and feelings of the people who created them.

(A Russian northern hut and a skyscraper are on display. Children are asked to express their opinion: did people express themselves in the same way, did they have the same idea of ​​beauty?)

What did the people who built the hut appreciate, what did they consider beautiful?

Students.Sturdy, large, well protected, made of huge barrels - reliable .

Teacher.Did our contemporaries who built the skyscraper love the same thing?

Students.They liked something quite different: tall, barely standing on the ground; lined with squares; like a lined sheet; made of metal and glass; all kind of artificial .

Teacher.You are right, if our ancestors, the Slavs, valued reliable protection, a fortress in their houses, then the people of the twentieth century also wanted to see large houses, but not at all like huts pressed to the ground. They boldly threw the house into the sky, demonstrating their power. We spoke only about the height of the building, but already realized that people saw beauty in completely different ways. Can I ask where she is, real beauty: in a hut or a skyscraper?

(Children express their opinions).

Both there and there there is beauty, only it is different and you need to be able to see it and convey it in words. So let's practice choosing these words.

The class is divided into teams. The task is to find an antonym for the word named by the teacher as soon as possible. Definition words are written in a column under the heading: "What words can I express my opinion about the structure."

High Low
Powerful - fragile
Majestic - humble
Spread - Ascending
Dumpy - graceful
Heavy - light
Smooth - Rugged
Calm - agile
Smooth - stormy
Strict on outward appearance- playful, bland appearance
Straight lines - curved lines
Simple - complex
Lush - modest
Plain, natural - festive

Teacher.I invite the teams to prepare a story about the artistic image that gives rise to the Parthenon, the pride of Ancient Greece, in three minutes. Choose words from the list to characterize it and guess what the Greeks saw beauty in.

(When one group names words, the second should only add what is missing. A separate point is for a word found independently.)

Students . Parthenon: high; powerful; majestic; moderately graceful, but not weak, it is clear that the columns are hard, but they withstand the load, proudly carry it; the temple is calm; strict in appearance; it has many straight lines, and from this it seems even more majestic and motionless; he is simple, but not a simpleton - everything is in moderation; he is not lush and not modest - everything is as it should be.

The ancient Greeks saw beauty in simplicity, so that everything was balanced, calm. As you can see, children who do not know anything in the history of art, only by analyzing the external form, were able to see the most important thing that was laid down by the architects of Ancient Greece.

It remains for the teacher to add that the columns personified the free members of society, who carried the burden of state power on their shoulders.

And of course, the teacher should praise the guys, because they made a huge step forward - they tried to understand architecture, and they did it expressing their own opinion, and not repeating the words spoken by the teacher.

Continued in number 21