Geographic envelope as a result of long-term interaction of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The earth is like a planet in the solar system. Atmosphere. Hydrosphere. Lithosphere. Biosphere

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Introduction

The rapid growth in the number of mankind and its scientific and technical equipment has radically changed the situation on Earth. If in the recent past all human activity manifested itself negatively only in limited, albeit numerous territories, and the impact force was incomparably less than the powerful circulation of substances in nature, now the scales of natural and anthropogenic processes have become comparable, and the ratio between them continues to change with acceleration in the direction of increasing power anthropogenic influence to the biosphere.

The danger of unpredictable changes in the stable state of the biosphere, to which natural communities and species, including man himself, are historically adapted, is so great while maintaining the usual methods of management that the current generations of people inhabiting the Earth are faced with the task of urgent improvement of all aspects of their lives in accordance with the need preservation of the existing circulation of substances and energy in the biosphere. In addition, the widespread pollution of our environment with various substances, sometimes completely alien to the normal existence of the human body, poses a serious danger to our health and the well-being of future generations.

atmosphere hydrosphere lithosphere pollution

1. Pollution of the atmosphere

Atmospheric air is the most important life-supporting natural environment and is a mixture of gases and aerosols of the surface layer of the atmosphere, formed during the evolution of the Earth, human activities and located outside residential, industrial and other premises. The results of environmental studies, both in Russia and abroad, unequivocally indicate that pollution of the surface atmosphere is the most powerful, constantly acting factor of impact on humans, the food chain and the environment. Atmospheric air has unlimited capacity and plays the role of the most mobile, chemically aggressive and all-penetrating agent of interaction near the surface of the components of the biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

V last years data were obtained on the essential role for the preservation of the biosphere of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, which absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, which is harmful to living organisms, and forms a thermal barrier at altitudes of about 40 km, which protects the cooling of the earth's surface.

The atmosphere has an intense impact not only on humans and biota, but also on the hydrosphere, soil and vegetation cover, geological environment, buildings, structures and other man-made objects. Therefore, the protection of atmospheric air and the ozone layer is the highest priority environmental problem and it is given close attention in all developed countries.

Contaminated ground atmospheres cause lung, throat and skin cancer, central nervous system disorders, allergic and respiratory diseases, newborn defects and many other diseases, the list of which is determined by the airborne pollutants and their combined effects on the human body. The results of special studies carried out in Russia and abroad have shown that there is a close positive relationship between the health of the population and the quality of atmospheric air.

The main agents of atmospheric influence on the hydrosphere are precipitation in the form of rain and snow, to a lesser extent smog and fog. Surface and ground waters of the land are mainly nourished by the atmosphere and, as a result, their chemical composition depends mainly on the state of the atmosphere.

The negative impact of the polluted atmosphere on the soil and vegetation cover is associated both with the precipitation of acidic atmospheric precipitation, which washes out calcium, humus and trace elements from the soil, and with the disruption of the processes of photosynthesis, leading to a slowdown in the growth and death of plants. The high sensitivity of trees (especially birch, oak) to air pollution has been identified a long time ago. The combined action of both factors leads to a noticeable decrease in soil fertility and the disappearance of forests. Acidic atmospheric precipitation is now considered as a powerful factor not only in the weathering of rocks and deterioration in the quality of bearing soils, but also in the chemical destruction of man-made objects, including cultural monuments and land communication lines. In many economically developed countries, programs are currently being implemented to address the problem of acidic precipitation. Under the National Acid Precipitation Impact Assessment Program, established in 1980, many US federal agencies began funding studies of atmospheric processes that cause acid rain to assess the impact of acid rain on ecosystems and develop appropriate conservation measures. It turned out that acid rain has a multifaceted effect on the environment and is the result of self-cleaning (washing) of the atmosphere. The main acidic agents are dilute sulfuric and nitric acid formed during oxidation reactions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides with the participation of hydrogen peroxide.

Sources of air pollution

Natural sources of pollution include: volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires, dust of space origin, particles of sea salt, products of plant, animal and microbiological origin. The level of such pollution is considered as background, which changes little over time.

The main natural process of surface air pollution is the volcanic and fluid activity of the Earth. Large volcanic eruptions lead to global and long-term pollution of the atmosphere, as evidenced by the chronicles and modern observational data (the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991). This is due to the fact that huge amounts of gases are instantly thrown into the high layers of the atmosphere, which at high altitudes are picked up by high-speed air currents and are quickly spread around the globe. The duration of the polluted state of the atmosphere after large volcanic eruptions reaches several years.

Anthropogenic sources of pollution are due to economic activities person. These include:

1. Combustion of fossil fuels, which is accompanied by the emission of 5 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year. As a result, over 100 years (1860 - 1960) the CO2 content increased by 18% (from 0.027 to 0.032%), and the rate of these emissions has increased significantly over the past three decades. At such rates, by 2000 the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will be at least 0.05%.

2. Operation of thermal power plants, when acid rain is formed as a result of the release of sulfur dioxide and fuel oil during the combustion of high-sulfur coals.

3. Exhaust from modern turbojet aircraft with nitrogen oxides and gaseous fluorocarbons from aerosols, which can damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere (ozonosphere).

4. Production activity.

5. Contamination with suspended particles (during grinding, packing and loading, from boiler houses, power plants, mine shafts, open pits during waste incineration).

6. Emissions of various gases by enterprises.

7. Combustion of fuel in flare furnaces, resulting in the formation of the most massive pollutant - carbon monoxide.

8. Combustion of fuel in boilers and vehicle engines, accompanied by the formation of nitrogen oxides, which cause smog.

9. Ventilation emissions (mine shafts).

10. Ventilation emissions with excessive concentration of ozone from rooms with high-energy installations (accelerators, ultraviolet sources and nuclear reactors) at MAC in working rooms of 0.1 mg / m3. In large quantities, ozone is a highly toxic gas.

During fuel combustion processes, the most intense pollution of the surface layer of the atmosphere occurs in megalopolises and large cities, industrial centers due to the widespread use of vehicles, thermal power plants, boiler houses and other power plants operating on coal, fuel oil, diesel fuel, natural gas and gasoline. The contribution of vehicles to the total air pollution here reaches 40-50%. A powerful and extremely dangerous factor of atmospheric pollution are disasters at nuclear power plants (Chernobyl accident) and tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. This is due both to the rapid spread of radionuclides over long distances, and to the long-term nature of the contamination of the territory.

The high danger of chemical and biochemical industries lies in the potential for accidental emissions into the atmosphere of extremely toxic substances, as well as microbes and viruses, which can cause epidemics among the population and animals.

At present, the surface atmosphere contains many tens of thousands of anthropogenic pollutants. Due to the continued growth of industrial and agricultural production, new chemical compounds appear, including highly toxic ones. The main anthropogenic air pollutants, in addition to large-tonnage oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, carbon, dust and soot, are complex organic, organochlorine and nitro compounds, man-made radionuclides, viruses and microbes. The most dangerous are dioxin, benzo (a) pyrene, phenols, formaldehyde, and carbon disulfide, which are widespread in the air basin of Russia. Suspended solid particles are mainly represented by soot, calcite, quartz, hydromica, kaolinite, feldspar, less often sulfates, chlorides. Oxides, sulphates and sulphites, sulphides of heavy metals, as well as alloys and metals in their native form were found in snow dust by specially developed methods.

In Western Europe, priority is given to 28 highly hazardous chemical elements, compounds and their groups. The group of organic substances includes acrylic, nitrile, benzene, formaldehyde, styrene, toluene, vinyl chloride, aneorganic - heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, V), gases (carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur, radon, ozone), asbestos. Lead and cadmium have a predominantly toxic effect. Carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, styrene, tetrachloroethane, toluene have an intense unpleasant odor. The halo of exposure to sulfur and nitrogen oxides spreads over long distances. The above 28 air pollutants are on the international register of potentially toxic chemicals.

The main air pollutants in residential premises are dust and tobacco smoke, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, radon and heavy metals, insecticides, deodorants, synthetic detergents, drug aerosols, microbes and bacteria. Japanese researchers have shown that bronchial asthma may be associated with the presence of domestic ticks in the air of dwellings.

The atmosphere is characterized by extremely high dynamism, due to both the rapid movement of air masses in the lateral and vertical directions, and high speeds, a variety of physical and chemical reactions occurring in it. The atmosphere is now viewed as a huge "chemical pot" influenced by numerous and variable anthropogenic and natural factors. Gases and aerosols emitted into the atmosphere are highly reactive. Dust and soot arising from fuel combustion, forest fires, sorb heavy metals and radionuclides and, when deposited on the surface, can contaminate vast territories and penetrate the human body through the respiratory system.

The tendency of joint accumulation of lead and tin in solid suspended particles of the surface atmosphere of European Russia is revealed; chromium, cobalt and nickel; strontium, phosphorus, scandium, rare earths and calcium; beryllium, tin, niobium, tungsten and molybdenum; lithium, beryllium and gallium; barium, zinc, manganese and copper. High concentrations of heavy metals in snow dust are caused both by the presence of their mineral phases, formed during the combustion of coal, fuel oil and other types of fuel, and by the sorption of gaseous compounds such as tin halides by soot, clay particles.

The lifetime of gases and aerosols in the atmosphere varies over a very wide range (from 1 - 3 minutes to several months) and depends mainly on their chemical stability of size (for aerosols) and the presence of reactive components (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, etc. .).

Assessment and, moreover, forecasting of the state of the surface atmosphere is a very difficult problem. At present, her condition is assessed mainly by the normative approach. MPC values ​​for toxic chemicals and other standard air quality indicators are given in many reference books and manuals. In such a guideline for Europe, in addition to the toxicity of pollutants (carcinogenic, mutagenic, allergenic and other effects), their prevalence and potential for accumulation in the human body and the food chain are taken into account. The disadvantages of the normative approach are the unreliability of the accepted values ​​of MPC and other indicators due to the poor development of their empirical observational base, the lack of taking into account the joint impact of pollutants and abrupt changes in the state of the surface layer of the atmosphere in time and space. There are few stationary observation posts for the air basin, and they do not allow adequately assessing its condition in large industrial - urbanized centers. Needles, lichens, and mosses can be used as indicators of the chemical composition of the surface atmosphere. At the initial stage of identifying foci of radioactive contamination associated with the Chernobyl accident, pine needles were studied, which have the ability to accumulate radionuclides in the air. Reddening of the needles of conifers is widely known during periods of smog in cities.

The most sensitive and reliable indicator of the state of the surface atmosphere is the snow cover, which deposits pollutants over a relatively long period of time and makes it possible to establish the location of sources of dust and gas emissions by a set of indicators. In snowfalls, pollutants are recorded that are not captured by direct measurements or calculated data on dust and gas emissions.

Multichannel remote sensing is one of the promising areas for assessing the state of the surface atmosphere in large industrial and urban areas. The advantage of this method is the ability to characterize large areas quickly, repeatedly and in a “one key” manner. To date, methods have been developed for assessing the content of aerosols in the atmosphere. The development of scientific and technological progress allows us to hope for the development of such methods in relation to other pollutants.

The forecast of the state of the surface atmosphere is carried out using complex data. These primarily include the results of monitoring observations, patterns of migration and transformation of pollutants in the atmosphere, features of anthropogenic and natural processes of air pollution in the study area, the influence of meteorological parameters, relief and other factors on the distribution of pollutants in the environment. For this, in relation to a specific region, heuristic models of changes in the surface atmosphere in time and space are being developed. The greatest successes in solving this complex problem have been achieved for the regions where nuclear power plants are located. The end result of applying such models is a quantitative assessment of the risk of air pollution and an assessment of its acceptability from a socio-economic point of view.

Chemical pollution of the atmosphere

Atmospheric pollution should be understood as a change in its composition due to the intake of impurities of natural or anthropogenic origin. There are three types of pollutants: gases, dust and aerosols. The latter include dispersed solid particles that are emitted into the atmosphere and are in it for a long time in suspension.

The main air pollutants include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur and nitrogen dioxides, as well as trace gases that can affect the temperature regime of the troposphere: nitrogen dioxide, halocarbons (freons), methane and tropospheric ozone.

The main contribution to the high level of air pollution is made by enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemistry and petrochemistry, construction industry, energy, pulp and paper industry, and in some cities and boiler houses.

Sources of pollution - thermal power plants, which together with smoke emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the air, metallurgical enterprises, especially non-ferrous metallurgy, which emit nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, phosphorus compounds, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic into the air; chemical and cement plants. Harmful gases are released into the air as a result of fuel combustion for the needs of industry, heating, transport, incineration and processing of household and industrial waste.

Atmospheric pollutants are divided into primary, entering directly into the atmosphere, and secondary, resulting from the transformation of the latter. So, sulfur dioxide entering the atmosphere is oxidized to sulfuric anhydride, which interacts with water vapor and forms droplets of sulfuric acid. When sulfuric anhydride interacts with ammonia, crystals of ammonium sulfate are formed. Similarly, as a result of chemical, photochemical, physicochemical reactions between pollutants and atmospheric components, other secondary signs are formed. The main source of pyrogenic pollution on the planet is thermal power plants, metallurgical and chemical enterprises, boiler plants, which consume more than 170% of the annually produced solid and liquid fuels.

A large share of air pollution is made up of emissions of harmful substances from cars. Now on the Earth there are about 500 million vehicles in operation, and by 2000 their number is expected to increase to 900 million. In 1997, 2,400 thousand vehicles were in operation in Moscow, while the norm of 800 thousand vehicles for existing roads.

Currently, road transport accounts for more than half of all harmful emissions into the environment, which are the main source of air pollution, especially in large cities. On average, with a mileage of 15 thousand km per year, each car burns 2 tons of fuel and about 26-30 tons of air, including 4.5 tons of oxygen, which is 50 times more than a person's needs. At the same time, the car emits into the atmosphere (kg / year): carbon monoxide - 700, nitrogen dioxide - 40, unburned hydrocarbons - 230 and solids - 2 - 5. In addition, a lot of lead compounds are emitted due to the majority of leaded gasoline ...

Observations have shown that in houses located next to a large road (up to 10 m), residents get cancer 3-4 times more often than in houses located 50 m away from the road. Transport also poisons water bodies, soil and plants.

Toxic emissions of internal combustion engines (ICE) are exhaust and blow-by gases, fuel vapors from the carburetor and fuel tank. The main share of toxic impurities enters the atmosphere with the exhaust gases of the internal combustion engine. With crankcase gases and fuel vapors, approximately 45% of hydrocarbons from their total emissions are released into the atmosphere.

The amount of harmful substances entering the atmosphere as part of the exhaust gases depends on the general technical condition of vehicles and, especially, on the engine - the source of the greatest pollution. So, if the carburetor adjustment is violated, carbon monoxide emissions increase 4 ... 5 times. The use of leaded gasoline containing lead compounds causes air pollution with highly toxic lead compounds. About 70% of the lead added to gasoline with ethyl liquid enters the atmosphere in the form of compounds with exhaust gases, of which 30% settles on the ground immediately after the exit pipe of the car, 40% remains in the atmosphere. One medium-duty truck emits 2.5 ... 3 kg of lead per year. The concentration of lead in air depends on the lead content in gasoline.

The release of highly toxic lead compounds into the atmosphere can be eliminated by replacing leaded gasoline with unleaded gasoline.

GTDU exhaust gases contain such toxic components as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, soot, aldehydes, etc. The content of toxic components in combustion products depends significantly on the engine operating mode. High concentrations of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are characteristic of gas turbine propulsion systems (GTEU) at low modes (idling, taxiing, approaching an airport, landing approach), while the content of nitrogen oxides increases significantly when operating at modes close to the nominal (takeoff , climb, flight mode).

The total emission of toxic substances into the atmosphere by airplanes with gas turbine engines is constantly growing, which is due to an increase in fuel consumption up to 20 ... 30 t / h and a steady increase in the number of aircraft in operation. The influence of GTDU on the ozone layer and the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is noted.

GGDU emissions have the greatest impact on living conditions in airports and areas adjacent to test stations. Comparative data on emissions of harmful substances at airports suggest that the revenues from the GTDU into the surface layer of the atmosphere are,%: carbon monoxide - 55, nitrogen oxides - 77, hydrocarbons - 93 and aerosol - 97. The rest of the emissions are emitted by ground vehicles with internal combustion engines.

Air pollution by vehicles with rocket propulsion systems occurs mainly during their operation before launch, during takeoff, during ground tests during their production or after repair, during storage and transportation of fuel. The composition of combustion products during the operation of such engines is determined by the composition of the fuel components, combustion temperature, the processes of dissociation and recombination of molecules. The amount of combustion products depends on the power (thrust) of the propulsion systems. During the combustion of solid fuel, water vapor, carbon dioxide, chlorine, hydrochloric acid vapor, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, as well as solid Al2O3 particles with an average size of 0.1 microns (sometimes up to 10 microns) are emitted from the combustion chamber.

At launch, rocket engines adversely affect not only the surface layer of the atmosphere, but also outer space, destroying the ozone layer of the Earth. The scale of ozone depletion is determined by the number of launches of rocket systems and the intensity of flights of supersonic aircraft.

In connection with the development of aviation and rocket technology, as well as the intensive use of aircraft and rocket engines in other sectors of the national economy, the total emission of harmful impurities into the atmosphere has significantly increased. However, these engines still account for no more than 5% of toxic substances emitted into the atmosphere from vehicles of all types.

Atmospheric air is one of the basic vital elements of the environment.

The law "O6 for the protection of atmospheric air" comprehensively covers the problem. He summarized the requirements developed in previous years and justified in practice. For example, the introduction of rules prohibiting the commissioning of any production facilities (newly created or reconstructed), if during operation they become sources of pollution or other negative effects on the atmospheric air. Got further development rules on the regulation of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants in the air.

The state sanitary legislation only for atmospheric air established maximum permissible concentrations for most chemicals in isolated action and for their combinations.

Hygiene standards are a state requirement for enterprise managers. Their implementation should be monitored by the state sanitary supervision bodies of the Ministry of Health and the State Committee on Ecology.

Of great importance for the sanitary protection of atmospheric air is the identification of new sources of air pollution, accounting for designed, built and reconstructed objects that pollute the atmosphere, control over the development and implementation of master plans for cities, towns and industrial centers in terms of the location of industrial enterprises and sanitary protection zones.

The Law "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air" provides for the requirements for the establishment of standards for maximum permissible emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. Such standards are established for each stationary source of pollution, for each model of transport and other mobile vehicles and installations. They are determined in such a way that the total harmful emissions from all sources of pollution in a given area do not exceed the MPC standards for pollutants in the air. Maximum allowable emissions are set only taking into account maximum allowable concentrations.

The requirements of the Law concerning the use of plant protection products, mineral fertilizers and other preparations are very important. All legislative measures constitute a preventive system aimed at preventing air pollution.

The law provides not only control over the fulfillment of its requirements, but also responsibility for their violation. A special article defines the role of public organizations and citizens in the implementation of measures for the protection of the air environment, obliges them to actively assist state bodies in these matters, since only broad public participation will make it possible to implement the provisions of this law. So, it says that the state attaches great importance to the preservation of a favorable state of atmospheric air, its restoration and improvement to ensure the best living conditions for people - their work, life, recreation and health protection.

Enterprises or their individual buildings and structures, the technological processes of which are a source of emission of harmful and unpleasant smelling substances into the atmospheric air, are separated from residential buildings by sanitary protection zones. The sanitary protection zone for enterprises and facilities can be increased, if necessary and properly justified, by no more than 3 times, depending on the following reasons: a) the effectiveness of the envisaged or possible methods of purification of emissions into the atmosphere; b) lack of ways to clean up emissions; c) placement of residential buildings, if necessary, on the leeward side in relation to the enterprise in the area of ​​possible atmospheric pollution; d) wind roses and other unfavorable local conditions (for example, frequent calm and fog); e) construction of new, yet insufficiently studied, sanitary production facilities.

The sizes of sanitary protection zones for individual groups or complexes of large enterprises of the chemical, oil refining, metallurgical, machine-building and other industries, as well as thermal power plants with emissions that create large concentrations of various harmful substances in the air and have a particularly adverse effect on health and sanitary - the hygienic living conditions of the population are established in each specific case by a joint decision of the Ministry of Health and the State Construction Committee of Russia.

To increase the efficiency of sanitary protection zones, tree-shrub and herbaceous vegetation is planted on their territory, which reduces the concentration of industrial dust and gases. In the sanitary protection zones of enterprises that intensively pollute the atmospheric air with gases harmful to vegetation, the most gas-resistant trees, shrubs and grasses should be grown, taking into account the degree of aggressiveness and concentration of industrial emissions. Emissions from enterprises are especially harmful to vegetation. chemical industry(sulfuric and sulfuric anhydride, hydrogen sulfide, sulfuric, nitric, fluoric and bromic acids, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, etc.), ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, coal and heat power industries.

2. Hydrosphere

Water has always occupied and will occupy a special position among the natural resources of the Earth. This is the most important natural resource, since it is necessary, first of all, for the life of a person and every living being. Water is used by humans not only in everyday life, but also in industry and agriculture.

The aquatic environment that includes surface and groundwater is called the hydrosphere. Surface water mainly concentrated in the oceans, containing about 91% of all water on Earth. The water in the ocean (94%) and underground is salty. The amount of fresh water is 6% of the total volume of water on Earth, and a very small fraction of it is available in places easily accessible for extraction. Most of the fresh water is found in snow, freshwater icebergs and glaciers (1.7%), located mainly in the southern polar circle, as well as deep underground (4%).

Currently, humanity uses 3.8 thousand cubic meters. km. water annually, and you can increase consumption up to a maximum of 12 thousand cubic meters. km. At the current rate of growth in water consumption, this will be enough for the next 25-30 years. Pumping out groundwater leads to subsidence of soil and buildings and a decrease in groundwater levels by tens of meters.

Water is of great importance in industrial and agricultural production. It is well known that it is necessary for the everyday needs of man, all plants and animals. For many living things, it serves as a habitat.

The growth of cities, the rapid development of industry, the intensification of agriculture, a significant expansion of the area of ​​irrigated land, the improvement of cultural and living conditions and a number of other factors are increasingly complicating the problem of water supply.

Each inhabitant of the Earth consumes on average 650 cubic meters. m of water per year (1780 liters per day). However, to satisfy physiological needs, 2.5 liters per day is sufficient, i.e. about 1 cubic meter m per year. A large amount of water is required for agriculture (69%), mainly for irrigation; Industry consumes 23% of water; 6% is spent in everyday life.

Taking into account the needs of water for industry and agriculture, water consumption in our country is from 125 to 350 liters per day per person (in St. Petersburg 450 liters, in Moscow - 400 liters).

In developed countries, each inhabitant has 200-300 liters of water per day. At the same time, 60% of the land does not have enough fresh water. A quarter of humanity (about 1.5 million people) feel its deficiency, and another 500 million suffer from a lack and poor quality of drinking water, which leads to intestinal diseases.

Most of the water, after being used for household needs, is returned to the rivers in the form of wastewater.

Purpose of the work: to consider the main sources and types of pollution of the Hydrosphere, as well as methods of wastewater treatment.

The shortage of fresh water is already becoming a global problem. The ever-increasing needs of industry and agriculture for water are forcing all countries, scientists of the world to look for various means to solve this problem.

At the present stage, the following directions of rational use of water resources are determined: more complete use and expanded reproduction of fresh water resources; development of new technological processes to prevent pollution of water bodies and to minimize the consumption of fresh water.

The structure of the Earth's hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth. It includes: surface and underground waters, directly or indirectly providing the vital activity of living organisms, as well as water falling out in the form of precipitation. Water occupies the predominant part of the biosphere. Of the 510 million km2 of the total area of ​​the earth's surface, the World Ocean accounts for 361 million km2 (71%). The ocean is the main receiver and accumulator of solar energy, since water has a high thermal conductivity. The main physical properties of the water environment are its density (800 times higher than the air density) and viscosity (55 times higher than air). In addition, water is characterized by mobility in space, which helps to maintain the relative homogeneity of physical and chemical characteristics. Water bodies are characterized by temperature stratification, i.e. changes in water temperature with depth. The temperature regime has significant daily, seasonal, and annual fluctuations, but in general, the dynamics of fluctuations in water temperature is less than that of air. The light regime of water under the surface is determined by its transparency (turbidity). Photosynthesis of bacteria, phytoplankton, higher plants depends on these properties, and, consequently, the accumulation of organic matter, which is possible only within the euphonic zone, i.e. in the layer where the processes of synthesis prevail over the processes of respiration. Turbidity and transparency depend on the content of suspended solids of organic and mineral origin in the water. Of the abiotic factors most significant for living organisms in water bodies, one should note the salinity of water - the content of dissolved carbonates, sulfates, chlorides in it. There are few of them in fresh waters, and carbonates predominate (up to 80%). Chlorides and partly sulfates predominate in ocean water. Almost all elements of the periodic table, including metals, are dissolved in seawater. Another characteristic of the chemical properties of water is associated with the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in it. Oxygen is especially important for the respiration of aquatic organisms. The vital activity and distribution of organisms in water depend on the concentration of hydrogen ions (pH). All inhabitants of water - aquatic organisms - have adapted to a certain pH level: some prefer acidic, others - alkaline, and others - a neutral environment. A change in these characteristics, primarily as a result of industrial impact, leads to the death of aquatic organisms or to the replacement of some species with others.

The main types of pollution of the hydrosphere.

Pollution of water resources means any changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of water in reservoirs due to the discharge of liquid, solid and gaseous substances that cause or may create inconvenience, making the water of these reservoirs dangerous for use, causing damage to the national economy, health and safety of the population. Sources of pollution are objects from which hazardous substances are discharged or otherwise released into water bodies, deteriorating the quality of surface waters, limiting their use, and also negatively affecting the state of the bottom and coastal water bodies.

The main sources of pollution and contamination of water bodies are insufficiently treated wastewater from industrial and municipal enterprises, large livestock complexes, production waste from the development of ore minerals; water of mines, mines, processing and alloying of timber; discharges of water and rail transport; flax primary processing waste, pesticides, etc. Pollutants entering natural reservoirs lead to qualitative changes in water, which are mainly manifested in changes in the physical properties of water, in particular, the appearance of unpleasant odors, tastes, etc.); in the change in the chemical composition of water, in particular, the appearance of harmful substances in it, in the presence of floating substances on the surface of the water and their deposition at the bottom of reservoirs.

Phenol is a rather harmful pollutant of industrial waters. It is found in wastewater from many petrochemical plants. At the same time, the biological processes of reservoirs, the process of their self-purification, sharply decrease, the water acquires a specific smell of carbolic acid.

The life of the population of reservoirs is adversely affected by wastewater from the pulp and paper industry. The oxidation of wood pulp is accompanied by the absorption of a significant amount of oxygen, which leads to the death of eggs, fry and adult fish. Fibers and other insoluble substances clog the water and impair its physical and chemical properties. Various tannins are released into the water from decaying wood and bark. Resin and other extractive products decompose and absorb a lot of oxygen, causing the death of fish, especially juveniles and eggs. In addition, molten rafting heavily clogs rivers, and driftwood often completely clogs their bottom, depriving fish of spawning grounds and feeding places.

Oil and oil products at the present stage are the main pollutants of inland water bodies, waters and seas, the World Ocean. Once in water bodies, they create various forms of pollution: an oil film floating on the water, oil products dissolved or emulsified in water, heavy fractions settled to the bottom, etc. This complicates the processes of photosynthesis in water due to the cessation of access to sunlight, and also causes the death of plants and animals. At the same time, the smell, taste, color, surface tension, viscosity of water change, the amount of oxygen decreases, harmful organic substances appear, water acquires toxic properties and poses a threat not only to humans. 12 g of oil makes a ton of water unusable. Each ton of oil creates oil slick on an area of ​​up to 12 square meters. km. Restoration of affected ecosystems takes 10-15 years.

Nuclear power plants pollute rivers with radioactive waste. Radioactive substances are concentrated by the smallest planktonic microorganisms and fish, then they are transferred to other animals along the food chain. It has been established that the radioactivity of planktonic inhabitants is thousands of times higher than the water in which they live.

Wastewater with increased radioactivity (100 curies per 1 liter or more) must be buried in underground drainless basins and special reservoirs.

Population growth, the expansion of old cities and the emergence of new cities have significantly increased the flow of domestic wastewater into inland waters. These runoffs have become a source of pollution of rivers and lakes with pathogenic bacteria and helminths. In still to a greater extent synthetic detergents, widely used in everyday life, pollute reservoirs. They are also widely used in industry and agriculture. Contained in them chemical substances entering rivers and lakes with wastewater have a significant impact on the biological and physical regime of water bodies. As a result, the ability of waters to saturate with oxygen decreases, the activity of bacteria that mineralize organic substances is paralyzed.

A serious concern is the pollution of water bodies with pesticides and mineral fertilizers that come from the fields along with streams of rain and melt water. As a result of research, for example, it has been proven that insecticides contained in water in the form of suspensions dissolve in oil products that pollute rivers and lakes. This interaction leads to a significant weakening of the oxidative functions of aquatic plants. Once in water bodies, pesticides accumulate in plankton, benthos, fish, and along the food chain they enter the human body, acting negatively both on individual organs and on the body as a whole.

In connection with the intensification of animal husbandry, the runoffs of enterprises in this branch of agriculture are increasingly making themselves felt.

Wastewater containing vegetable fibers, animal and vegetable fats, fecal matter, residues of fruits and vegetables, waste from the tannery and pulp and paper industry, sugar and breweries, meat and dairy, canning and confectionery industries, are the cause of organic pollution of water bodies.

In wastewater, usually about 60% of substances of organic origin, this category of organic includes biological (bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae) pollution in municipal, medical and sanitary waters and wastes from tanneries and wool washing enterprises.

A serious environmental problem is that the usual way of using water to absorb heat in thermal power plants is to directly pump fresh lake or river water through a cooler and then return it to natural bodies of water without preliminary cooling. The 1000 MW power plant requires a lake with an area of ​​810 hectares and a depth of about 8.7 m.

Power plants can increase the temperature of the water in comparison with the ambient temperature by 5-15 C. Under natural conditions, when the temperature rises or falls slowly, fish and other aquatic organisms gradually adapt to changes in the ambient temperature. But if, as a result of the discharge of hot wastewater from industrial enterprises into rivers and lakes, a new temperature regime is quickly established, there is not enough time for acclimatization, living organisms receive a heat shock and die.

Heat shock is the extreme result of heat pollution. The result of the discharge of heated wastewater into water bodies can be other, more insidious consequences. One of them is the impact on metabolic processes.

As a result of an increase in water temperature, the oxygen content in it decreases, while the need for it in living organisms increases. The increased demand for oxygen, its lack of it causes severe physiological stress and even death. Artificial heating of water can significantly change the behavior of fish - cause untimely spawning, disrupt migration

An increase in water temperature can disrupt the structure of the flora of water bodies. Algae characteristic of cold water are replaced by more thermophilic ones and, finally, at high temperatures, they are completely displaced, thus creating favorable conditions for the mass development of blue-green algae in reservoirs - the so-called “water bloom”. All of the above consequences of thermal pollution of water bodies cause enormous harm to natural ecosystems and lead to a detrimental change in the human environment. Damages resulting from thermal pollution can be divided into: - economic (losses due to a decrease in the productivity of water bodies, the cost of eliminating the consequences of pollution); social (aesthetic damage from landscape degradation); ecological (irreversible destruction of unique ecosystems, extinction of species, genetic damage).

The way is now clear that will allow people to avoid the ecological deadlock. These are waste-free and low-waste technologies, the transformation of waste into useful resources. But it will take decades to bring the idea to life.

Wastewater treatment methods

Wastewater treatment is the treatment of wastewater with the aim of destroying or removing harmful substances from it. Cleaning methods can be divided into mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological.

The essence of the mechanical method

purification consists in the fact that the existing impurities are removed from wastewater by sedimentation and filtration. Mechanical treatment makes it possible to isolate up to 60-75% of insoluble impurities from domestic wastewater, and up to 95% from industrial wastewater, many of which (as valuable materials) are used in production.

The chemical method consists in the fact that various chemical reagents are added to the wastewater, which react with pollutants and precipitate them in the form of insoluble sediments. Chemical cleaning achieves a reduction of insoluble impurities up to 95% and soluble impurities up to 25%.

With the physicochemical method

treatment from wastewater, finely dispersed and dissolved inorganic impurities are removed and organic and poorly oxidized substances are destroyed. Of the physicochemical methods, coagulation, oxidation, sorption, extraction, etc., as well as electrolysis are most often used. Electrolysis is the destruction of organic substances in wastewater and the extraction of metals, acids and other inorganic substances when an electric current flows. Wastewater treatment using electrolysis is effective at lead and copper enterprises, in the paint and varnish industry.

Waste water is also purified using ultrasound, ozone, ion exchange resins and high pressure. Chlorination cleaning has proven itself well.

Among the methods of wastewater treatment, a biological method based on the use of the regularities of biochemical self-purification of rivers and other water bodies should play an important role. Various types of biological devices are used: biofilters, biological ponds, etc. In biofilters, wastewater is passed through a layer of coarse-grained material covered with a thin bacterial film. Thanks to this film, biological oxidation processes proceed intensively.

In biological ponds, all organisms inhabiting the reservoir take part in wastewater treatment. Before biological treatment, wastewater is subjected to mechanical treatment, and after biological (to remove pathogenic bacteria) and chemical treatment, chlorination with liquid chlorine or bleach. For disinfection, other physicochemical methods are also used (ultrasound, electrolysis, ozonation, etc.). The biological method gives the best results when cleaning municipal waste, as well as waste from oil refining, pulp and paper industries, and the production of artificial fibers.

In order to reduce pollution of the hydrosphere, it is desirable to reuse it in closed resource-saving, waste-free processes in industry, drip irrigation in agriculture, economical use of water in production and in everyday life.

3. Lithosphere

The period from 1950 to the present is called the period of the scientific and technological revolution. By the end of the twentieth century, there were huge changes in technology, new means of communication and information Technology, which dramatically changed the possibilities of information exchange and brought the most distant parts of the planet closer together. The world literally before our eyes is rapidly changing, and humanity in its actions does not always keep up with these changes.

Environmental problems did not arise by themselves. This is the result of the natural development of civilization, in which the previously formulated rules of human behavior in their relationship with the surrounding nature and within human society, which supported a stable existence, came into conflict with the new conditions created by scientific and technological progress. In the new conditions, it is necessary to form both new rules of behavior and a new morality, taking into account all natural science knowledge. The greatest difficulty, which determines a lot in solving environmental problems, is still insufficient concern of human society as a whole and many of its leaders with the problems of preserving the environment.

Lithosphere, its structure

Man exists in a certain space, and the main component of this space is the earth's surface - the surface of the lithosphere.

The lithosphere is called the hard shell of the Earth, consisting of crust and the layer of the upper mantle underlying the earth's crust. The distance of the lower boundary of the earth's crust from the Earth's surface varies within 5-70 km, and the Earth's mantle reaches a depth of 2900 km. After it, at a distance of 6371 km from the surface, there is a core.

Land occupies 29.2% of the earth's surface. The upper layers of the lithosphere are called soil. The soil cover is the most important natural formation and a component of the Earth's biosphere. It is the soil shell that determines many of the processes taking place in the biosphere.

The soil is the main source of food, providing 95-97% of food resources for the world's population. Square land resources the world is 129 million square meters. km, or 86.5% of the land area. Arable land and perennial plantations as part of agricultural land occupy about 10% of the land, meadows and pastures - 25% of the land. Soil fertility and climatic conditions determine the possibility of the existence and development of ecological systems on Earth. Unfortunately, due to improper exploitation, some of the fertile land is lost every year. Thus, over the past century, as a result of accelerated erosion, 2 billion hectares of fertile land have been lost, which is 27% of the total area of ​​land used for agriculture.

Sources of soil pollution.

The lithosphere is polluted with liquid and solid pollutants and wastes. It has been established that annually one ton of waste is generated per one inhabitant of the Earth, including more than 50 kg of polymer, which are difficult to decompose.

Sources of soil pollution can be classified as follows.

Residential buildings and public utilities. The composition of pollutants in this category of sources is dominated by household waste, food waste, construction waste, waste from heating systems, deteriorated household items, etc. All this is collected and disposed of in landfills. For large cities, the collection and disposal of household waste in landfills has turned into an intractable problem. Simple burning of garbage in city landfills is accompanied by the release of toxic substances. When such items are burned, for example, chlorine-containing polymers, highly toxic substances - dioxides are formed. Despite this, in recent years, methods for the disposal of incineration waste have been developed. Incineration of such waste over hot metal melts is considered a promising method.

Industrial enterprises. Solid and liquid industrial waste constantly contains substances that can have a toxic effect on living organisms and plants. For example, in the wastes of the metallurgical industry, salts of non-ferrous heavy metals are usually present. The machine-building industry releases cyanides, arsenic and beryllium compounds into the natural environment; in the production of plastics and artificial fibers, waste is generated containing phenol, benzene, styrene; during the production of synthetic rubbers, waste of catalysts and substandard polymer clots get into the soil; during the production of rubber products, dusty ingredients, soot, which settle on the soil and plants, waste rubber-textile and rubber parts, enter the environment, and during the operation of tires - worn out and out-of-order tires, car tubes and rim strips. The storage and disposal of used tires is currently an unresolved problem, as this often leads to severe fires that are very difficult to extinguish. The utilization rate of used tires does not exceed 30% of their total volume.

Transport. During the operation of internal combustion engines, nitrogen oxides, lead, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, soot and other substances that settle on the surface of the earth or are absorbed by plants are intensively emitted. In the latter case, these substances also enter the soil and are involved in the cycle associated with the food chains.

Agriculture. Soil pollution in agriculture occurs due to the introduction of huge amounts of mineral fertilizers and pesticides. It is known that some pesticides contain mercury.

Soil contamination with heavy metals. Non-ferrous metals are called heavy metals, the density of which is greater than that of iron. These include lead, copper, zinc, nickel, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, mercury.

A feature of heavy metals is that in small quantities, almost all of them are necessary for plants and living organisms. In the human body, heavy metals are involved in vital biochemical processes. However, exceeding the permissible number of them leads to serious diseases.

...

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Topic 1. Ecology and the natural environment.

Astronomers suggest that the Earth, together with other planets, arose about 4.6 billion years ago from one collapsing cloud of gas and dust, from which the Sun was formed. In accordance with modern scientific views, the Earth is represented by three layers (spheres).

The first layer is atmosphere extending into space. The composition of the modern atmosphere of the planet belongs to the nitrogen-oxygen type and this qualitatively differs from the gas envelopes of all currently known celestial bodies, including the planets Solar system... The atmosphere is subdivided into several zones: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere.

1. Troposphere - the lower part of the atmosphere. More than 80% of the entire mass of air is concentrated in it. Its height is determined by the intensity of vertical (ascending and descending) air flows caused by heating of the earth's surface (at the equator to an altitude of 16-18 km, in temperate latitudes 10-11 km, at the poles up to 8 km). The troposphere is characterized by a decrease in air temperature with height, on average by 0.6 K every 100 m.

(2) The stratosphere is located above the troposphere, up to an altitude of 50-55 km, and is characterized by an increase in temperature at its upper boundary. This is due to the presence of an ozone belt here, which intensively absorbs light radiation of the ultraviolet spectrum. At the same time, the ozone layer protects the Earth's surface from the harmful effects of this part of the Sun's radiation.

3. The mesosphere extends to an altitude of 80 km. There is a sharp drop in temperature (down to -75-90 ° C) and the formation of noctilucent clouds consisting of ice crystals.

4. The ionosphere (thermosphere) reaches an altitude of 800 km. It is characterized by a significant increase in temperature (up to 1000 ° C and more). Under the direct influence of ultraviolet radiation, the gas is present here in an ionized state, which contributes to multiple reflections of radio waves that provide long-distance radio communications on Earth.

5. The exosphere is located at an altitude of 800 to 2000-3000 km and has a temperature of over 2000 ° C. The speed of movement of gases in it approaches the critical (11.2 km / s). They are represented mainly by hydrogen and helium, forming a corona around the Earth, extending up to an altitude of 20 thousand km.

The second sphere - the lithosphere - the upper solid shell of the Earth, includes the earth's crust and upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere is 50-100 km, including the earth's crust - up to 75 km on the continents and 10 km under the ocean. Only the upper part of the earth's crust has been investigated (about 5% of its volume). It consists of 47-49% oxygen, 27-28% silicon, 8% aluminum. They form the basis of sandy-clay minerals, the proportion of which in the crust reaches 80-85%. The same elements, as well as iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and titanium, form 99.6% of the mass of the earth's crust. The remaining 105 known chemical elements accounts for only 0.4%. Life in the lithosphere is concentrated only in the surface layer of the earth's crust, that is, in the soil. Soil is the upper outer levels of rocks, changed under the influence of water, air and the activity of living organisms, it is a mixture of the remnants of living organisms and inert (inorganic) substances, which has such a property as fertility. The thickness of the soil is low: from 30 cm in the tundra to 160 cm in the western chernozems.

The layer of the Earth that follows the crust, about 2,880 km thick, is known as the mantle. It is believed to be mainly composed of dense silicate rocks. The third layer, about 3500 km thick, is called the core. Apparently, it consists of an outer liquid layer about 2080 km thick and a solid central part of nickel and iron at a temperature of 6400 K.

Most of the surface of our planet is occupied by the third sphere or hydrosphere, including all types of reservoirs. In the most general form, the hydrosphere is divided into the World Ocean, continental and underground waters.

The bulk of the water is concentrated in the oceans. Its average depth is over 4000 m, it covers an area equal to 71% of the earth's surface, and is distinguished by high salinity. Continental bodies of water cover about 5% of the Earth's area. Of these, surface waters (lakes, rivers, swamps) account for a very small part (0.2%), glaciers - 1.7%.

In the upper part of the earth's crust there are vast reserves of groundwater, which make up about 4% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. Fresh waters occur to a depth of 150-200 m, below they become brackish. Groundwater also includes ice in the permafrost.

Free waters of the hydrosphere are vertically divided into two zones. The upper zone is euphotic, determined by the depth of penetration of sunlight (on average 200 m). In this zone, the activity of photosynthetic organisms (plants, some bacteria) takes place. In the lower layers, where sunlight does not penetrate, - the aphotic zone - living organisms live, using ready-made organic substances synthesized by organisms of the euphotic zone. The entire planetary water reserve reaches 1450 million km 3.

The hydrosphere is closely related to the lithosphere (groundwater), the atmosphere (water vapor) and living matter, which contains water as an essential component. It acts as a universal solvent for almost all substances and interacts with many of them. This interaction enables the exchange of substances, for example, between land and ocean, organisms and the environment.

In addition to the named ones, one more very peculiar shell of the Earth is distinguished, which is called biosphere, this is the area of ​​distribution of life on Earth, covering several geospheres inhabited by organisms: the troposphere, the hydrosphere and part of the lithosphere (up to 3 km). The biosphere is a set of parts of the earth's shells, which is inhabited by living organisms, is under their influence and is occupied by the products of their vital activity.

The biosphere consists of several types of substances:

1. living matter - the totality of all living organisms on the planet (plants, animals, microorganisms);
2. biogenic substance - a substance created and processed by living organisms throughout geological history (coal, bitumen, limestone, oil);
3. inert substance (solid, liquid, gaseous) - a substance of inorganic origin, i.e. formed in processes in which living matter does not participate;
4. bioinert substance - a substance that is created simultaneously in the life processes of living organisms and in the processes of inorganic nature, and organisms play a leading role (this includes almost all the water of the biosphere, soil, silt);
5. a substance in the process of radioactive decay (radioactive elements);
6. scattered atoms, continuously formed from various types of terrestrial matter under the influence of cosmic radiation;
7. matter of cosmic origin (cosmic dust, meteorite debris, etc.).

The main signs of a living are:

1.Unity of chemical composition... In living organisms, 98% of the chemical composition falls on 6 elements (macrobiogens): about 60% oxygen, about 20% carbon, about 10% hydrogen, 3% nitrogen, 3.5% calcium and 1% phosphorus.

2.Living systems contain set of complex biopolymers(proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes, vitamins, etc.).

3.It is open systems, that is, systems that cannot exist without a constant influx of energy in the form of food, light, etc. (use external energy sources). All living systems are capable of exchanging substances with the environment, absorbing substances necessary for nutrition from it, and releasing waste products into the external environment.

Flows of energy and substances pass through living organisms, as a result of which metabolism is carried out in systems - metabolism(from Greek - transformation.).

Metabolism includes processes anabolism(synthesis of substances) and catabolism(decomposition of complex substances). In the processes of anabolism, under the action of enzymes, complex substances are synthesized from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy (photosynthesis).

During catabolism, energy is released, contained in the chemical bonds of large organic molecules, and its accumulation in the form of energy-rich phosphate bonds of adenosine triphosphoric acid (respiration, fermentation). The end products of catabolism are carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, etc. Metabolism ensures the constancy of the chemical composition of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis) and, as a consequence, the constancy of its functioning in continuously changing environmental conditions.

4.Living systems - highly organized and ordered systems, they are stable during life and quickly decompose after death.

5. Life on Earth manifests itself as discrete forms. Discreteness living means that a separate organism or a community of organisms consists of separate isolated, but closely related and interacting parts, forming a structural and functional unity.

6.Living Systems - self-replicating systems... Self-reproduction is based on the formation of new molecules and structures according to a genetic program that is embedded in the DNA of cells.

Heredity- the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics, properties and developmental abilities from generation to generation.

7 living systems - self-governing, self-regulating and self-organizing systems.

Self-regulation- the property of living systems to automatically establish and maintain at a certain level certain indicators of the system (pH, temperature, water content, carbon dioxide, etc.), i.e. provide homeostasis.

Self-organization- the property of a living system to adapt to changing environmental conditions by changing the structure of its control system. This change occurs in the process of processing information coming from the external environment, i.e. living systems with self-governing.

8 living systems are capable of growth and development. Height- increase in size and weight while maintaining common features and the qualities of the system. The growth of a living system is accompanied by development, that is, the emergence of new qualities and traits.

9.Historical development, that is, the irreversible and directed development of living nature, is accompanied by the formation of new species and a progressive complication of the form of life from fertilization to death. The historical development of living systems is associated with their variability.

Variability- a property opposite to heredity and associated with the acquisition of new properties and characteristics by the body under the influence of external factors as a result of self-government.

10.Living organisms are characterized by rhythm, that is, periodic changes in the intensity of physiological functions with different periods of fluctuations (circadian rhythms of sleep and wakefulness, seasonal rhythms of activity and hibernation of some mammals).

11.Living system - dynamic system, which actively perceives and transforms molecular information for the purpose of self-preservation.

The interaction of living organisms with the components of the biosphere (lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere) occurs through exchange, nutrition, respiration and excretion of metabolic products. All organisms are not the same in terms of their accumulation of substances and energy. Plants use solar energy to carry out the process of photosynthesis, while animals consume organic matter created by photosynthetic plants. Therefore, all living organisms can be divided into two classes by the way of nutrition: autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.

Autotrophic, i.e. self-feeding - they absorb the energy of the Sun and substances from the environment, create organic substances from inorganic ones. These include green plants, algae, and some bacteria. According to the energy source, autotrophs are subdivided:

1.Photoautotrophs carry out the process of converting water and carbon dioxide into sugars with the release of oxygen as a by-product (photosynthesis).

2.Chemoautotrophs for the synthesis of organic substances, chemical energy is used (sulfur and iron bacteria - during the oxidation of sulfur and iron compounds), they play a significant role only in ecosystems of groundwater.

Heterotrophic organisms, i.e. fed by others - they use ready-made organic substances as food, i.e. they feed on other animal organisms, plants or their fruits. These include herbivores, carnivores, and humans.

Allocate sometimes more mixotrophic organisms that, depending on environmental conditions, can combine autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. For example, aquatic unicellular organisms feed autotrophically in good illumination, and in the dark they switch to a heterotrophic method.

Living matter is also subdivided:

1.Homogeneous- biomass of organisms of the same species or genus.

2.Heterogeneous- biomass of individuals of different species inhabiting this ecosystem.

3.Reproductive substance- living organisms, thanks to which life in the biosphere is constantly reproduced.

4.Somatic substance- organisms that are no longer able to reproduce their own kind.

Living systems have a combination of the following functions:

1.Nutrition... All living systems need food as a source of energy and substances necessary for the construction of organs (the process of anabolism).

2.Breath- the process of catabolism.

3.Highlighting- excretion of end metabolic products from the body.

4.Irritability- response to changes in the external and internal environment (hunger, thirst, cold). The reaction of multicellular animals to irritation is carried out with the participation of the nervous system and is called reflex.

5.Reproduction.

6.Height- unlike crystals growing outside, living systems grow as if from the inside, including nutrients into the structure of their body.

7.Mobility- movement in space of the entire system and movement within the system (blood in animals).

The properties of living matter include:

1) the ability to quickly master everything free space (the wholeness of life).

2. The ability to move not only passively (under the influence of gravity), but also actively (against the flow of water, gravity, etc.).

3. Persistence during life and rapid decomposition after death.

4. High adaptive ability (adaptation) to different conditions and, in this regard, the development of not only all environments of life (water, air, soil), but also difficult conditions in terms of physicochemical parameters (temperature, radiation, etc.).

5. Very high rate of reactions, it is several orders of magnitude higher than in inanimate matter.

6. High rate of renewal of living matter (on average for the biosphere 8 years, while for land - 14 years, and for the ocean - 33 days).

In accordance with the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky, the biosphere can be divided into three sub-spheres:

1.Aerobiosphere inhabited by aerobionts, the basis of life of which is air moisture. A layer is isolated in the aerobiosphere tropobiosphere- from the tops of the trees to the height of the most frequent location of cumulus clouds. Above the tropobiosphere lies the layer altobiosphere where the concentration of microorganisms is very low. Above the altobiosphere layer there is a space where microorganisms enter by chance, and in this layer they do not multiply - parabiosphere.

2.In hydrobiosphere three layers are distinguished depending on the intensity of the penetrating sunlight:

-photosphere- relatively brightly lit layer;

-dysphotosphere- Penetrates up to 1% of sunlight;

-aftosphere- a layer of absolute darkness, where photosynthesis is impossible.

3.Geobiosphere includes:

-terrabiosphere- the area of ​​life on the land surface, which is subdivided into phytosphere(from the surface of the Earth to the tops of trees) and pedosphere(soils and underlying subsoils);

-lithobiosphere- life in the depths of the Earth in the pores of rocks. Life in the thickness of the lithosphere exists mainly in groundwater.

The main properties of the biosphere include:

1 the biosphere is capable of accumulate solar energy and convert it into the energy of chemical bonds of organic compounds.

2.Biosphere - integral system, it is due to the continuous exchange of substances and energy between its constituent parts.

3.Biosphere - centralized system, its center is living organisms.

4.Biosphere - open system... Its existence is impossible without a constant influx of solar energy.

5.Biosphere - self-regulating system, which is characterized by organization, the ability to maintain the initial state, i.e. after various violations, return to its original state (this property is called homeostasis).

6 the biosphere manifests rhythm- the recurrence in time of certain phenomena. In nature, there are rhythms of different duration. The main ones are daily, annual, intrasecular and supersecular.

7 the biosphere has horizontal zoning and high zoning.

Horizontal zoning is a natural change in the natural environment in the direction from the equator to the poles. Zoning is due to the unequal amount of heat supplied to different latitudes due to the spherical shape of the Earth. The largest zonal subdivisions - geographic zones.

8 biosphere - global multi-element system characterized by great variety. This diversity is due to the combination of a large number of ecosystems with their inherent species diversity.

9.The most important property of the biosphere - ensuring the circulation of substances and the inexhaustibility of individual chemical elements and their compounds. Violation or even more destruction of natural cycles of chemical elements can lead to the collapse of the biosphere.

10 biosphere - living open system... She exchanges energy and matter with the outside world. With regard to the biosphere, the outside world is outer space.

The biosphere includes, first of all, those areas where there are conditions for the survival and reproduction of living beings - these are the field of existence of life... They adjoin territories in which living organisms only survive, they cannot reproduce. These territories are called life sustainability field.

The field of existence of life is determined by:

1) a sufficient amount of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water;

2) favorable temperature;

3) the subsistence level of minerals.

The greatest concentration of life in the biosphere is observed at the boundaries of contact of the earth's shells: atmosphere and lithosphere (land surface), atmosphere and hydrosphere (ocean surface), hydrosphere and lithosphere (ocean floor), and especially at the border of three shells - atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere (coastal zone). These are the places where the life of V.I. Vernadsky named films of life... Up and down from these surfaces, the concentration of living matter decreases.

There are five integral biochemical functions of the biosphere, including living matter:

1.Energy function performed mainly by plants. This function is based on the process of photosynthesis, i.e. accumulation of solar energy by green plants and its further redistribution between other components of the biosphere.

2.Environment-forming function consists in the transformation of the chemical parameters of the environment into conditions favorable for the existence of organisms. It provides the gas composition of the atmosphere, the composition of sedimentary rocks of the lithosphere and the chemical composition of the hydrosphere, the balance of substances and energy in the biosphere, the restoration of human-disturbed living conditions. The environment-forming function includes:

-Gas function provides the gas composition of the biosphere in the processes of migration and transformation of gases, most of which are of biogenic origin. Several gas functions are distinguished: oxygen-carbon dioxide (the process of photosynthesis), carbon dioxide (the process of respiration), and nitrogen (release of nitrogen by nitrogen-denitrifying bacteria).

-Destructive function determines the processes associated with the decomposition of dead organic matter, with the chemical destruction of rocks and the involvement of the resulting substances in the biotic cycle. As a result of this, bioinert and biogenic substances are formed, mineralization of organic matter occurs, i.e. its transformation into inert substance.

-Concentration function consists in the selective extraction and accumulation of biogenic elements of the environment by living organisms, causing a large difference in the composition of the living and inert matter of the planet. Thanks to this function, living organisms can serve as a source for humans, both useful substances (vitamins, amino acids) and hazardous to health (heavy metals, radioactive elements and pesticides).

-Redox function living organisms is manifested in the oxidation with the participation of bacteria, fungi of all oxygen-poor compounds in the soil, the weathering crust and the hydrosphere. As a result of the reducing activity of anaerobic microorganisms, oxidized forms of iron are formed in waterlogged soils, which are practically devoid of oxygen.

3.Transport function- the transfer of matter and energy as a result of the movement of living organisms. Often this transfer is carried out over a huge distance, for example, during the flight of birds.

4.Information function... Living organisms are able to perceive, store and process molecular information and transmit it to subsequent generations.

5.Scattering function- dispersion of substances in the environment. It manifests itself through the trophic and transport activities of organisms, for example, dispersion of toxic substances, dispersion of substances when excreted by organisms.

The condition for the existence and development of the biosphere is the circulation of biologically important substances. Solar energy provides two cycles of matter on Earth: geological, or large, and small, biological.

The geological cycle is clearly manifested in the example of the water cycle and atmospheric circulation. It is estimated that up to half of the energy coming from the sun is used to evaporate water. Its evaporation from the Earth's surface is compensated for by precipitation. At the same time, more water evaporates from the Ocean than it returns with precipitation, and the opposite happens on land - more precipitation falls than water evaporates. Its surplus flows into rivers and lakes, and from there - back to the Ocean. Along with water in the geological cycle, minerals are also transferred from one place to another.

With the emergence of a living principle on the basis of a geological, or abiotic, cycle, a biological cycle arises. The biological cycle is understood as the entry of chemical elements from the soil and atmosphere into living organisms, the transformation of the incoming elements into new complex compounds with their subsequent return to the soil and atmosphere, as well as water.

From the moment a person appears on Earth, the formation of a new geological shell begins - noosphere(from Greek - mind), that is, the sphere of reason. This concept was introduced by the French mathematician and philosopher E. Leroy in 1927. The noosphere is regarded as the highest stage in the development of the biosphere, associated with the emergence of a civilized society in it.

2. The concept of the scientific discipline "Ecology".

The term "ecology" (from the gr. Oikos - home, homeland and logos - science) was proposed by the German biologist E. Haeckel (1866), this is the science of the relationship of the plant world, animal organisms, humans and the communities formed by them between themselves and the environment ...

Based on the definition that ecology is a set of scientific and practical problems of the relationship between man and nature, it can be divided into general and applied ecology.

The general ecology should include the sections that study the anthroposic effect on living matter (bioecology) and bioinert matter (geoecology) and their responses to this effect.

In bioecology, when dividing according to the level of organization of the living, one can distinguish molecular ecology, morphological ecology (cells and tissues) and autoecology, which studies living matter at the level of the individual. When dividing according to the type of structuring of living things in a biological system, bioecology can be divided into the ecology of multicellular organisms (fungi, plants and animals) and unicellular organisms (microorganisms).

The subject of geoecology includes the problems of interaction in the anthropos - bioinert matter system. Taking as a sign of division state of aggregation of this substance, we obtain, for example, the division of geoecology into the ecology of land, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

The field of applied ecology should include the following issues: the development of common decisions, forecasts and recommendations regarding the ways out of global crisis situations of an ecological nature; development of specific management, legal, technological and economic solutions that improve the environmental parameters of the development of society. Based on the foregoing, applied ecology can be divided into the ecology of global crisis problems and the ecology of nature management.

The global crisis includes, for example, the problems of the greenhouse effect and the ozone layer of the Earth. The ecology of nature management is represented by the ecology of industrial, agricultural, commercial, everyday life, etc.

Very important for the development of the biosphere is hydrosphere(derived from the Greek words hydor - water and spharia - sphere). This is the discontinuous water shell of the Earth, it occupies 70% of the earth's surface and is located between the atmosphere and the solid earth's crust (lithosphere) and is a collection of oceans, seas and surface waters of the land. In addition, the composition of the hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic, as well as atmospheric water and water contained in living organisms. The bulk of the water in the hydrosphere is concentrated in the seas and oceans, the second place in terms of the volume of water masses is taken by underground waters, the third place is the ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Surface waters of land, atmospheric and biologically bound waters make up fractions of a percent of the total volume of water in the hydrosphere.

The chemical composition of the hydrosphere approaches the average chemical composition of seawater.

The Earth is unique because it contains a lot of liquid water, which plays a very important role in the formation of other features of the planet. Foremost among these is the abundance of life. The hydrosphere is essential for the existence of the biosphere, since life originated in the hydrosphere, and most plants and animals are composed mainly of water.

The role of the hydrosphere is great in maintaining a relatively unchanged climate, which allowed life to reproduce for more than three billion years. Fossil remains of animals, plants and microorganisms indicate that life, which appeared in the early Precambrian period, was not interrupted and developed along the path of increasing diversity and improvement.

Life requires temperatures in the range from 0 to 100 o C (the limits of the liquid phase of water), which means that the temperature throughout most of the history of the planet was relatively constant.

In the most extensive part of the hydrosphere - the oceanosphere - three areas are distinguished. In the surface layer (up to a depth of 100 m), there is enough light for photosynthesis; green plants can live here; the salinity of the water varies depending on the area. The bathyal area (from 100 to 1500 m), where light penetrates only into the upper horizons, is distinguished by weak mechanical movement of water and constant salinity. The abyssal area (deeper than 1500 m) is devoid of sunlight. Its temperature does not exceed 4 ° C; there are no plant organisms, but animals are common to the deepest depressions.

Surface waters, occupying a relatively small share in the total mass of the hydrosphere, nevertheless play an important role in the development of the biosphere, being the main source of water supply, irrigation and watering. The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, the earth's crust (lithosphere). The interaction of these waters and mutual transitions from one species to another constitute a complex water cycle in the biosphere.

Natural waters are subdivided into surface and ground waters. At the same time, natural water is a complex, continuously changing system containing mineral and organic substances in a suspended, colloidal and truly dissolved state, as well as gases. In a suspended state, natural waters contain clay, sand, gypsum and calcareous particles, in colloidal - various substances of organic origin, silicic acid, iron hydroxide and others, in a truly dissolved state are mainly mineral salts that enrich the water with ions, in the form of dissolved gases - carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane.

Surface waters are characterized by a high content of insoluble substances, in particular organic compounds. In addition to sand and clay particles, they contain loess, silty substances, various carbonate compounds, hydroxides of aluminum, manganese and iron, high-molecular organic impurities of humic origin, sometimes in the form of organomineral complexes, plankton, etc. The sizes of suspended particles vary from colloidal to coarsely dispersed particles. The content of suspended solids in surface water sources varies from several units to tens of thousands of mg / l.

Groundwater, in contrast to surface water, is different small amount organic substances and a significant content of mineral salts, and sometimes dissolved gases (H 2 S, CO 2, CH 4). In the presence of a hydraulic connection between surface and groundwater, the latter are characterized by increased oxidizability. There is a direct relationship between the depth of groundwater and the degree of their mineralization. Groundwater is often characterized by significant hardness and high content of iron, manganese, and fluorine.

1.5. Lithosphere, its composition and structure

Lithosphere(derived from the Greek words lithos - stone and spharia - sphere) - the outer sphere of the Earth's hard shell, which has great strength, passing without a clear boundary into the underlying layer - the asthenosphere (from the Greek asthenes - weak). The substance of the asthenosphere is capable of a viscous or plastic flow. Apparently, it is in the asthenosphere that processes occur that cause horizontal and vertical movements of large areas of the earth's crust. The thickness of the lithosphere ranges from 50-200 km. Top part the lithosphere forms the earth's crust, and the lower - the upper part of the Earth's mantle. The boundary between these parts of the lithosphere is determined by a jump in the change in the velocity of propagation of longitudinal and transverse elastic seismic waves (the so-called Mohorovichich boundary, or surface M).

The earth's crust is usually understood as the sialite (consisting mainly of silica and aluminum) shell of the Earth, having an average density of about 2.7 g / cm 3. The earth's crust, which, in contrast to the hydrosphere, is a continuous shell of our planet, is characterized by horizontal and vertical heterogeneity. Based on geophysical data on changes in the density of the earth's crust matter from top to bottom, the following layers are distinguished: sedimentary, granite, basalt. Their average density is 1.8-2.5; 2.5-2.75; 2.75-3.0 g / cm 3, respectively. The average density of the substance underlying the crust is 3.1-3.3 g / cm 3.

Sedimentary layer mainly composed of unaltered or slightly altered sedimentary rocks (clays, sandstones, conglomerates, limestones, dolomites, gypsum, etc.) formed on the Earth's surface as a result of redeposition of weathering products and destruction of older rocks, chemical and mechanical precipitation from water , the vital activity of organisms. The thickness of the sedimentary layer is extremely variable: in some places it is absent, in some places it reaches a thickness of 15-25 km. Its average thickness is much greater within continents than oceans. The total volume of the sedimentary layer is approximately 10% of the volume of the entire earth's crust, with the bulk of its constituent rocks falling on continents and shelves.

Granite layer consists mainly of igneous rocks of the granite group (rich in silica) and metamorphic rocks formed as a result of strong alteration (mainly under the action of high temperature and pressure) of sedimentary and igneous rocks. It often comes to the earth's surface in the development areas of the most ancient strata of our planet. The thickness of the layer sometimes reaches 25-30 km.

Basalt layer is likely to be predominantly complex with basic ones, i.e. relatively poor silica, basalt-type rocks and metamorphic rocks. Its thickness, like that of the layers located above, is unstable. Under the continents, it reaches 30 km, while under the ocean it ranges from 2-3 to 10-15 km.

The biosphere includes only the uppermost part of the earth's crust, and the lower boundary of the biosphere is indistinct, vague, since the prevalence of living organisms from the boundary of the lithosphere with the atmosphere and hydrosphere into the interior of the Earth decreases sharply. A distinct migration of life is noted only to a depth of several tens of meters, however, microorganisms reach much greater depths with underground waters, of the order of 2-3 km. There are isolated cases of finding microorganisms in oil-bearing waters and oil, produced during drilling from depths of about 4.5 km. The position of the boundary can vary greatly depending on the geological structure of the area, hydrogeological conditions and geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient characterizes the increase in the temperature of the rocks of the earth's crust with deepening for every 100 m.In different places it has an unequal value, usually in the range from 0.5-1 to 20 o C, and on average is about 3 o C. The main physical factor temperature, which determines the boundaries of the activity of microorganisms in the earth's crust. The overwhelming majority of microorganisms cannot withstand a long stay at temperatures close to 100 ° C, therefore, the lower boundary of the biosphere is considered the depth where the temperature is close to 100 ° C. In reality, the spread of life is limited not only by temperature conditions, but also by other factors, and not always reaches the limit due to the increase in temperature.

1.6. Soil: characteristics, properties

Pedosphere- a complex, specific biogenic envelope of the earth, located on land of continents and shallow waters of seas and lakes. It plays the role of the earth's geomembrane, similar to the functions of biomembranes of living organisms. It is a kind of skin of the Earth, through which there is a constant exchange of matter and energy between the planet's geospheres - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and living organisms of the biosphere. The soil - a geomembrane - regulates this exchange, allowing some substances or energy flows to pass through and reflecting, retarding, absorbing others.

Soil is a special natural formation with a number of properties inherent in living and inanimate nature; consists of genetically related horizons (form a soil profile) resulting from the transformation of the surface layers of the lithosphere under the combined action of water, air and organisms; characterized by fertility. As a result of complex biological and chemical interactions sedimentary rocks are formed at the boundary between the soil and the upper layers of the lithosphere.

The soil shell was formed as a result of the interaction of the geophysical shells of the planet; it is a product of the processing of primordial rocks and organisms. The soil has developed fertility, i.e. the ability to produce crops.

The founder of classical soil science, V.V. Dokuchaev, gave the following definition of soil: it is a special natural-historical body that forms the upper loose shell of the earth's crust, formed under the combined effect of elements of the physical-geographical environment and organisms.

The soil is heterogeneous vertically. It is a complex of horizons differing in physical properties, color, general appearance, etc. The totality of genetic soil horizons is combined into the concept of "soil profile".

Each soil has its own characteristic profile, i.e. the sequence and nature of the horizons. The genetic horizons of the soil are closely related and are the product of chemical and physical interaction, accumulation, migration and differentiation of matter during soil formation. The number, combination, severity and properties of these horizons are stable and characteristic features for certain types and varieties of soils.

The thickness of the soil profile depends on the conditions of soil formation and on the duration of the soil forming process. So, in a polar climate, where conditions are unfavorable for the life of organisms, low temperatures, permafrost, slow physical and chemical weathering of rocks, underdeveloped soils are formed with a thickness of no more than 10-20 cm.

In a hot, humid tropical climate, where the vital activity of organisms is increased, and the products of weathering and soil formation are not removed by erosion processes, the thickness of the soil reaches tens of meters. Thus, it is not limited to the arable layer, but is determined by the depth of the transformative influence of terrestrial climatic factors, the root system of plants and soil fauna.

The soil has specific physical properties (which are not found in rocks): looseness, structure, water permeability, water retention capacity, aeration and absorption capacity. Due to its high dispersion, the soil can retain various kinds of ions, gases and vapors in an absorbed state. The specific physical properties of the soil create favorable conditions for the development of plant root systems and the colonization of higher and lower organisms.

The most important chemical property of the soil is the accumulation in the upper horizon of the profile of humus, a product of the death of plants, soil animals and microorganisms. The organic matter of humus serves as the material basis for the life of soil microorganisms. The composition of humus includes the most important elements, the compounds of which are necessary for plant nutrition: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.

Soil moisture contains various gases, dissolved salts, nutrients and toxic substances. The soil air contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and water vapor. The soil, in contrast to the rock, is biogenic. The upper part of the soil profile is permeated with a mass of root systems, which, continuously growing, dying, decaying, are the basis for the life of microorganisms and animals. In 1 gram of the soil of the humus horizon, there are hundreds of millions and billions of microorganisms. Numerous insects, burrowing animals densely inhabit the soil and, after dying off, are a source of organic matter for the life of microorganisms. Soil bacteria and fungi take an active part in the formation of humic substances, nonspecific organic compounds, specific enzymes, antibiotics, and sometimes toxins.

Thus, the soil is a multiphase, polydisperse system, consisting of mechanical elementary particles of various sizes, mineral or organic, microaggregates, large structural units and their groups. A significant part of the soil (about 50%) is occupied by the solid phase. The rest is represented by living matter, water and air.

Main biosphere media: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere (soil)

The biosphere is a system with direct and reverse (negative and positive) connections, which ultimately provide the mechanisms of its functioning and stability. The biosphere is a centralized system. Living organisms (living matter) are its central link. This property was comprehensively disclosed by V.I. Vernadsky, but, unfortunately, is often underestimated by man at the present time: only one species is placed in the center of the biosphere or its links - man (anthropocentrism).

Atmospheres a- the gas shell of the Earth, It is a natural mixture of gases that has developed during the evolution of the planet. At present, the atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen (N 2), 20.9% oxygen (02), about 1% argon (Ar) and 0.03% carbon dioxide (CO 2).

The Earth's atmosphere is unique. The oxygen in the air is vital for the respiration of plants and animals. Currently, there is still an approximate balance between the production of oxygen and its consumption. However, heavy consumption 0 2 industry and transport in recent times raises concerns about upsetting the oxygen balance in the environment.

Carbon dioxide has a significant effect on the temperature of the planet. Having a higher density than oxygen or nitrogen, this gas densely covers the water and soil cover of the Earth. By itself, CO2 is a dangerous component of the atmosphere for all living things. An increase in CO2 content in the surface layer of the atmosphere can lead to massive destruction of life in the soil cover and deterioration of its fertility.

Unlike oxygen, which is supplied to the atmosphere by green plants, carbon dioxide is captured by these same plants and binds to organic compounds. In the process of respiration, the carbon of organic compounds is converted into carbon dioxide.

Nitrogen, which is part of the atmospheric air in the largest quantities, is a chemically inert gas (translated from Greek - "lifeless"). In air, it is dormant in a molecular state. Nitrogen practically does not participate in geochemical processes and only accumulates in the atmosphere. At the same time, N 2 is the most important building material for proteins, nucleic acids and other compounds. It becomes an element of life only in chemical compounds - readily soluble nitric acid and ammonium salts. However, there is no bound nitrogen in the air, 7 and under normal conditions most organisms are not able to extract it from the atmosphere.

The atmosphere not only supports life, but also serves as a protective shield. At an altitude of 20-25 km from the Earth's surface, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, some of the oxygen molecules are split into free atoms. The latter can re-enter into compounds with O 2 molecules and form its triatomic form O 3 - ozone.

Ozone plays an exceptional role in the life of the planet. It forms a thin layer in the upper layers of the atmosphere - the so-called ozone screen, which filters out the harmful component of solar radiation - ultraviolet rays. The direct influence of these rays is detrimental to all living things. Without the ozone layer, this radiation would destroy life on Earth.

The gas shell protects the Earth from meteorite bombardment. Most meteorites never reach the earth's surface, as they burn up when entering the atmosphere at a tremendous speed.

In addition, the atmosphere contributes to the conservation of heat on the planet, which would otherwise be dissipated in the cold of outer space. Solar energy, which penetrates in the form of short electromagnetic waves through the atmosphere to the earth's surface, is largely reflected from it in the form of longer waves, which are partially trapped and screened by the lower atmosphere back to the earth's surface. This is how our planet uses solar heat twice. Without this effect, life on Earth would be impossible, since the primary rays of the Sun heat its surface only to -18 ° C. The thermal energy fluxes reflected by the troposphere increase this average temperature up to + 15 ° С. At a given temperature, the planet's surface and atmosphere are in thermal equilibrium. Heated by the energy of the Sun and infrared radiation of the atmosphere, the surface of the Earth returns to the atmosphere on average an equivalent amount of energy.

The heating of the atmosphere is due to the presence of so-called greenhouse gases in it; carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and water vapor, which, on the one hand, are capable of absorbing (capturing) the infrared radiation of the Earth, and on the other, reflecting part of it back to the Earth. Without the "gas blanket" enveloping the planet, the temperature on its surface would be 30-40 ° C lower, and the existence of living organisms in such conditions is very problematic.

Hydrosphere - one of the most important components of our planet, uniting all free waters. It occupies about 70% of the earth's surface. The total reserves of water in a free state are 1386 million km 3. If this water were to evenly cover the globe, then its layer would be 3700 m. At the same time, 97-98% of the water is salt water of the seas and oceans. And only 2-3% is fresh water, necessary for life. 75% of fresh water on Earth is in the form of ice, a significant part of it is groundwater, and only 1% is available for living organisms.

Water is part of all elements of the biosphere. It is an integral part not only of water bodies, but also of air, soil, and living beings.

Water is the source of life, without it the existence of animals, plants and humans is impossible. It is part of the cells and tissues of any animal and plant. The most complex reactions in animals and plant organisms can occur only in the presence of water. The human body is 65% water. The bodies of animals contain, as a rule, at least 50% water. Plants also contain a lot of water: potatoes - 80%, tomatoes - 95%, etc.

Under the influence of solar energy and gravitational forces, the Earth's water can move from one state to another and are in continuous motion. The water cycle ties together all parts of the biosphere, forming a generally closed system; ocean - atmosphere - land.

The hydrosphere plays a crucial role in shaping the special features of the planet. It is of great importance in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere, contributes to the maintenance of a relatively unchanged climate, which allowed life to reproduce for more than 3 billion years. The climate on Earth largely depends on water bodies and the content of water vapor in the atmosphere. The oceans and seas have a softening, regulating effect on air temperature, accumulating heat in summer and giving it back to the atmosphere in winter. Warm and cold waters circulate and mix in the ocean.

In the hydrosphere, most of the chemical reactions take place, leading to the production of biomass and chemical purification of the biosphere. The factors of self-purification of water bodies are numerous and varied. They can be conditionally divided into three groups: physical, chemical and biological.

Among physical factors, dilution, dissolution and mixing of substances are of paramount importance. This is facilitated by the intensive flow of rivers. In addition, the treatment process is affected by the settling of insoluble sediments in the water, as well as the sedimentation of polluted waters. An important physical factor in self-cleaning is the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Bacteria, viruses, microbes die under its influence.

From chemical factors self-cleaning should be noted the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances by oxygen dissolved in water.

An active role in the self-purification of the hydrosphere is played by the aggregate activity of all organisms inhabiting water bodies. In life processes, they oxidize (decompose) organic pollutants.

In addition to all of the above, the hydrosphere is an important source of food for people and other land inhabitants, a source of valuable raw materials and fuel. Oceans, seas, rivers and other bodies of water are natural routes of communication and are of recreational importance.

Lithosphere (soil). Soil is the surface layer of the earth's crust, created under the combined influence of external conditions: heat, water, air, plant and animal organisms, especially microorganisms. This is the result of the patient, centuries-old labor of nature. The earth has accumulated it for many millennia at a very slow rate: 1 cm of chernozem in 100-300 years.

The soil has specific physical properties: looseness, water permeability, aeration, etc. In the upper layers of the soil are concentrated substances necessary for plant nutrition - nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and others. It is a habitat for many microorganisms and burrowing animals. Here, a vital exchange of minerals between the biosphere and the inorganic world takes place: plants receive water and nutrients, and leaves and branches, dying, return to the soil, where they decompose, releasing the minerals they contain. Thus, the role of soil is diverse: on the one hand, it is an important site for all natural cycles, on the other, it is the basis for biomass production.

Soil is the main foundation of life, a unique and at the same time vulnerable natural formation.

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The lithosphere is the stone shell of the Earth. From the Greek "lithos" - stone and "sphere" - ball

The lithosphere is the outer solid shell of the Earth, which includes the entire earth's crust with part of the Earth's upper mantle and consists of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. The lower boundary of the lithosphere is indistinct and is determined by a sharp decrease in the viscosity of rocks, a change in the velocity of propagation of seismic waves and an increase in the electrical conductivity of rocks. The thickness of the lithosphere on the continents and under the oceans differs and averages 25–200 and 5–100 km, respectively.

Consider in general terms the geological structure of the Earth. The third planet beyond the distance from the Sun - the Earth - has a radius of 6370 km, an average density of 5.5 g / cm3 and consists of three shells - bark, mantle and and. The mantle and core are divided into inner and outer parts.

The Earth's crust is a thin upper shell of the Earth, which has a thickness of 40-80 km on the continents, 5-10 km under the oceans and makes up only about 1% of the Earth's mass. Eight elements - oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium - make up 99.5% of the earth's crust.

According to scientific research, scientists were able to establish that the lithosphere consists of:

• Oxygen - 49%;
• Silicon - 26%;
• Aluminum - 7%;
• Iron - 5%;
• Calcium - 4%
• The lithosphere contains many minerals, the most common are spar and quartz.

On the continents, the crust is three-layered: sedimentary rocks cover the granite, and the granite ones lie on the basalt. Under the oceans, the crust is "oceanic", two-layer type; sedimentary rocks lie simply on basalts, there is no granite layer. There is also a transitional type of the earth's crust (island-arc zones on the outskirts of the oceans and some areas on the continents, for example, the Black Sea).

The greatest thickness of the earth's crust is in mountainous regions(under the Himalayas - over 75 km), the middle one - in the areas of platforms (under the West Siberian lowland - 35-40, within the boundaries of the Russian platform - 30-35), and the smallest - in the central regions of the oceans (5-7 km). The predominant part of the earth's surface is the plains of the continents and the ocean floor.

The continents are surrounded by a shelf - a shallow-water strip with a depth of up to 200 g and an average width of about 80 km, which, after a sharp abrupt bend of the bottom, turns into a continental slope (the slope varies from 15-17 to 20-30 °). The slopes are gradually leveled and become abyssal plains (depths 3.7-6.0 km). The deepest (9-11 km) are oceanic trenches, the overwhelming majority of which are located on the northern and western outskirts of the Pacific Ocean.

The main part of the lithosphere consists of igneous igneous rocks (95%), among which granites and granitoids prevail on the continents, and basalts in the oceans.

Blocks of the lithosphere - lithospheric plates - move along the relatively plastic asthenosphere. The geology section on plate tectonics is devoted to the study and description of these movements.

To denote outer shell lithosphere, the now outdated term sial was used, derived from the name of the main elements of rocks Si (Latin Silicium - silicon) and Al (Latin Aluminum - aluminum).

Lithospheric plates

It is worth noting that the largest tectonic plates are very clearly distinguishable on the map and they are:

• Pacific- the largest plate of the planet, along the borders of which there are constant collisions of tectonic plates and faults are formed - this is the reason for its constant decrease;
• Eurasian- covers almost the entire territory of Eurasia (except for Hindustan and the Arabian Peninsula) and contains the largest part of the continental crust;
• Indo-Australian- it includes the Australian continent and the Indian subcontinent. Due to constant collisions with the Eurasian plate, it is in the process of breaking;
• South American- consists of the South American continent and part of the Atlantic Ocean;
• North American- consists of the North American continent, part of northeastern Siberia, the northwestern part of the Atlantic and half of the Arctic oceans;
• African- consists of the African continent and the oceanic crust of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. It is interesting that the adjacent plates move in the opposite direction from it, therefore, the largest fault on our planet is located here;
• Antarctic plate- consists of the mainland Antarctica and the nearby oceanic crust. Due to the fact that the plate is surrounded by mid-oceanic ridges, the rest of the continents are constantly moving away from it.

The movement of tectonic plates in the lithosphere

Lithospheric plates, connecting and separating, change their shape all the time. This makes it possible for scientists to put forward the theory that about 200 million years ago, the lithosphere had only Pangea - one single continent, which subsequently split into parts, which began to gradually move away from each other at a very low speed (on average about seven centimeters per year ).

It is interesting! There is an assumption that due to the movement of the lithosphere, in 250 million years a new continent will form on our planet due to the unification of moving continents.

When the collision of the oceanic and continental plates occurs, the edge of the oceanic crust sinks under the continental one, while on the other side of the oceanic plate its boundary diverges from the adjacent plate. The boundary along which the lithosphere moves is called the subduction zone, where the upper and subsiding edges of the plate are distinguished. It is interesting that the plate, plunging into the mantle, begins to melt when the upper part of the earth's crust is squeezed, as a result of which mountains are formed, and if, in addition, magma erupts, then volcanoes.

In places where tectonic plates touch each other, there are zones of maximum volcanic and seismic activity: during the movement and collision of the lithosphere, the earth's crust collapses, and when they diverge, faults and depressions are formed (the lithosphere and the relief of the Earth are connected with each other). This is the reason that along the edges of tectonic plates are located the largest landforms of the Earth - mountain ranges with active volcanoes and deep-sea trenches.

Lithosphere problems

The intensive development of industry has led to the fact that man and the lithosphere have recently begun to get along extremely badly with each other: pollution of the lithosphere is becoming catastrophic. This happened due to an increase in industrial waste in conjunction with household waste and fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, which negatively affects the chemical composition of the soil and living organisms. Scientists have calculated that about one ton of garbage falls per person per year, including 50 kg of difficult-to-decompose waste.

Today lithosphere pollution has become urgent problem, since nature is not able to cope with it on its own: self-cleaning of the earth's crust occurs very slowly, and therefore harmful substances gradually accumulate and, over time, negatively affect the main culprit of the problem, man.