Southeast Asia during the Cold War. Confrontation between the ussr and the usa during the cold war

By countering the spread of communist ideology in Europe, the United States tried to respond in a timely manner to problems that arose in other regions of the world. In China, Americans were worried about Mao Zedong's and his Communist Party's overly rapid rise to power. During World War II, there were battles with the Japanese in China, and a civil war broke out between the Chiang Kai-shek government and the communist forces. Chiang Kai-shek was a military ally of the United States, but even American support did not save the government, turned out to be corrupt and completely incompetent. Mao's forces finally seized power in 1949; Mao declared that his country, together with the USSR, was called upon to resist American imperialism. Communism seemed unstoppable, at least in Asia.

The Korean War caused an armed conflict between the United States and China. After the liberation of Korea from the Japanese, the country was dismembered along the thirty-eighth parallel. To the north of the demarcation line of surrender, Soviet troops were received, to the south - by the Americans. Initially, the demarcation line was drawn simply for convenience. And the escalation of the Cold War has given it fundamental importance. The Soviet and American governments created state authorities in their occupation zones, supporting them even after the withdrawal of troops.

In June 1950, North Korean forces crossed the 38th Paralleal and moved south, leaving Seoul behind. Considering North Korea just a pawn of the USSR, Truman put the troops on alert and dispatched General Douglas MacArthur to Korea. At the same time, the United States was able to influence the UN, with its resolution branded North Korea as an aggressor (the USSR, as a member of the Security Council, did not use its veto power when adopting the resolution, since it boycotted the UN for refusing China's membership).

The scales of military operations in Korea fluctuated from one to another. First, American and South Korean forces were displaced far to the south, where they still had a foothold near the city of Busan. After a successful landing at Incheon, Seoul's naval gateway, the northern forces were forced to retreat. But when military operations began near the Chinese border, the PRC entered the war, ferrying numerous forces across the Yala River. The American-dominated UN armed forces were forced to retreat back in the midst of the battle. But soon they came and again reached the thirty-eighth parallel demarcation line.

General MacArthur, violating the principles of accountability of the military to civilians, tried to organize widespread support among the public to launch the bombing of the PRC and pave the way for the nationalist armed groups of Chiang Kai-shek into the territory of that country. Truman dismissed MacArthur's link to the violation of chain of command; the place of the disgraced / general was taken by General Matthew Ridgway. Much was at stake in the Cold War, but limited military operations provoked discontent among many Americans who could not understand this restrained tactic. President Truman's popularity dropped to 24 percent, the worst ever in office.

Peace talks began in July 1951; the agreement was concluded in July 1953, during the period of the new president, Dwight Eisengawer.

The echoes of the Cold War have reached the Middle East with its strategically important oil regions. The first signal of danger sounded in 1946, when Soviet troops, in violation of the agreement, remained in Iran after the withdrawal of British and American armed formations from there. The USA demanded from the UN to condemn the prolonged military presence of the USSR in Iran. With the introduction of Soviet tanks into the territory of this country, Washington prepared for direct hostilities. Faced with determined resistance from the United States, the USSR was forced to withdraw its military forces.

Two years have passed. The United States officially recognized the State of Israel 15 minutes after its proclamation. Truman decided on this diplomatic action despite significant resistance from Marshall and the State Department. While establishing relations with the new state, the United States also took care of peaceful relations with the Arab countries that opposed Israel.

A.

Of course, everyone knows the NATO military bloc - a bloc created to counter the spread of communism, which includes the United States, Canada, Turkey and their European allies. After the collapse of the USSR, the goals of the alliance changed, but it is still discussed in the media in connection with its eastward expansion in 1999,2004 and 2009.

However, not everyone knows that to contain and resist communism, 4 more blocs were created in Asia: SEATO (Southeast Asian Treaty Organization), CENTO (Central Treaty Organization), ANZUS (Australia - New Zeeland - USA) and ANZUK (Australia- New Zeeland-United Kingdom). This gave the impression that the Soviet Union and other communist countries were surrounded by pro-American anti-communist regimes, but in fact, due to the different goals of the members of these military alliances and the weak organization, they, in fact, did not contribute to the containment of communism in any way.

CENTO (Central Treaty Organization)

The Central Treaty Organization (Baghdad Pact) was created at the initiative of the United States and Great Britain in 1955 to oppose communism and prevent its penetration into the Middle East region. Its participants were Great Britain, Turkey, Iraq (released in 1958), Iran and Pakistan. The United States was not a member of CENTO, but had observer status in it and, being a member of its main committees, actively participated in the work of this block. Initially, it was planned to include Arab states in CENTO, but due to hostile relations with the US ally Israel and the fresh memory of the times when they were colonies of Great Britain and France, Arab countries (with the exception of Iraq) refused to join this union.

The main bodies of CENTO were: the Permanent Council of Ministers (sessions were held annually), the Secretariat (Secretary General since 1971 N. Assar, Iran), the military committee, the committee for combating subversive activities, the economic committee and the liaison committee; there was a Joint Defense Planning Headquarters, as well as a number of subcommittees and technical groups.

From the outset, the organization was torn apart by controversy. The United States saw the main goal of CENTO to contain the Soviet Union, Great Britain - to organize uninterrupted supplies of Middle Eastern oil to Europe, and Pakistan joined CENTO to get support in the confrontation with India. The activities of the Central Treaty Organization were complicated by the fact that the United States refused to officially join this organization, as it feared a negative reaction from the Arab states and the Soviet Union, as well as Israel's demands to provide it with security guarantees. The lack of consolidation of the members of the Central Treaty Organization also shows the fact that during the Suez Crisis of 1956 all Muslim countries participating in the Baghdad Pact condemned the aggression against Egypt, and Iraq and Pakistan demanded to exclude Great Britain from this organization.

Another test of CENTO's strength was arranged by the fall of the monarchy in Iraq in 1958 and its subsequent withdrawal from this organization. It was from that moment that this organization received the name CENTO (before that it was called the "Baghdad Pact"), and the headquarters of this organization was moved from Baghdad to Ankara.

Muslim countries participating in CENTO have repeatedly protested the US policy towards this organization, believing that the United States is not serious about this bloc. The reason for this was the refusal of Washington to provide military assistance to the CENTO member countries and to modernize their defense system. The United States did see CENTO as an alliance of secondary importance, as it considered a conflict between the USSR and the United States' allies in the Middle East unlikely. In addition, the United States and Great Britain never shared their plans for waging war in the event of a conflict with the USSR with their Central Treaty allies, partly distrusting their Muslim allies. Mistrust was born from the fact that the United States was critical of the military potential of its allies in Southwest Asia, believing that their armies would be needed only for the primary containment of Soviet troops. Also, with all the loyalty of the Iranian Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the United States considered him a weak, vain ruler, and after 1958 (taking into account the increasingly increasing social stratification in Iran) they began to seriously fear his overthrow. All this could not suit the Islamic states participating in CENTO, which, as reported by the US Embassy in Tehran, believe that Washington perceives them as "children."

In addition, the contradictions between Iran and Pakistan intensified due to the province of Baluchistan, which was seized from it by the British in 1896 and incorporated into Pakistan.

The CENTO organization did not prevent the USSR from strengthening its influence in South-West Asia and Africa: the USSR supplied arms to the Arab countries, helping them in the confrontation with Israel, established friendly relations with Egypt, Ethiopia, South Yemen, Sudan, Somalia, Mozambique. For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that Moscow's friendly relations with Somalia and Sudan did not last long, and Egypt took a pro-Western orientation with the coming to power of Anwar Sadat in 1971, but the US alliances with many third world states did not last long either.

“For us, the Soviet threat overshadowed everything, but Pakistan was more worried about its relations with India than with the USSR and China. The Baghdad Pact itself was more important for establishing relations between its members than for repelling Soviet aggression. Neither in SEATO, nor in the Baghdad Pact, were we connected with their members by such a common goal that bound us within the European Defense Union, "wrote Henry Kissinger.

This block ceased to exist after the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 and the withdrawal of this country from CENTO. After this event, the CENTO member states decided to dissolve the Central Treaty Organization, since the existence of this block was meaningless without Iran.

SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization)

This block was created by the efforts of the American Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, its creation was fixed by the Manila Pact of September 8, 1954. SEATO members were USA, UK, France, Thailand, Philippines, New Zealand, Australia and Pakistan (and the latter was accepted on the condition that he persuaded Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to join this organization, but failed to fulfill his promise). The main body of SEATO was the Council of Ministers, which included the foreign ministers of the member states of this bloc or their deputies. The Defense Planning Committee was subordinate to the Council of Ministers. SEATO's headquarters were located in Bangkok. Like CENTO, this bloc was supposed to help contain the communist states and prevent the emergence of communist regimes in Southeast Asia.

The need to create this bloc for the West was dictated by the rapid spread of communism in Asia: the formation of the PRC in 1949, the formation of the DPRK and the subsequent Korean War of 1950-1953, the unrest in Indonesia and Malaya (future Malaysia), as well as the creation of a communist regime in the north of Vietnam. led by Ho Chi Minh. All this contributed to the growing anxiety of Western countries and their Asian allies and led to the creation of this bloc.

This block was supposed to become a projection of NATO in Southeast Asia, all the participating countries agreed that in the event of an attack on one of the parties to this treaty, the rest of the participants will come to his aid. In addition to military exercises, within the framework of this block, economic and cultural ties between its participants were strengthened. However, in terms of its effectiveness, it never reached the NATO level, as Henry Kissinger writes about in the above passage.

During the Vietnam War, 5 SEATO members helped the South Vietnamese regime in the fight against North Vietnam, but this could not prevent the unification of North and South Vietnam under the communist regime of Ho Chi Minh. France and Pakistan condemned the introduction of American troops into Vietnam and did not support their allies. After the withdrawal of American troops from Vietnam, the question arose about the expediency of the existence of this organization - Pakistan (1973) and France (1974) announced their withdrawal from the organization. Also, the dilapidated SEATO could not stop the Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot from coming to power in Cambodia, although South Vietnam and Cambodia were on the list of territories protected from communism. In 1977, this organization was disbanded and finally ceased to exist.

ANZUK (Australia-New Zeeland-United Kingdom)

ANZUK is a military-political bloc created in 1971 at the initiative of Great Britain with the aim of protecting Malaysia and Singapore, which were also members of this organization. Justified the presence of British troops in Asia, which corresponded to the interests of Great Britain in this region. Considered by the United States as a conductor of their interests in Southeast Asia, an allied bloc that could provide assistance in the fight against communism. However, the Australian government, which came to power in 1974, began to reduce the number of Australian armed forces in Singapore. This prompted the collapse of ANZUK, and in 1974 it was decided to dissolve it.

ANZUS (Australia-New Zeeland-United States)

On September 1, the Pacific Security Pact was signed between representatives of Australia, New Zealand and the United States, which gave rise to the ANZUS bloc. Initially, this agreement was concluded due to fears of Australia and New Zealand that Japan will attack them again after a while. However, article three of this treaty explicitly stated that in the event of an attack on Australia or New Zealand, the United States would only be obliged to consult with its allies, whether to intervene in the conflict or not, they would have to decide for themselves. However, according to the Australian website skwork.com, it has been hailed as a major diplomatic success for Australia, helped reduce its dependence on the UK, and placed Australia at the center of politics. All parties to this agreement later joined SEATO and fought together in Korea and Vietnam.

However, in 1985, New Zealand refused to accept a nuclear-armed US Navy ship, which Washington viewed as a betrayal. America has suspended its obligations to New Zealand. In 1987, New Zealand declared its territory a nuclear-weapon-free zone. The military alliance between the United States and Australia continues to this day.

Sources:

1. http://www.humanities.edu.ru/db/msg/38169 // Definition of the CENTO organization
2. http://www.inoforum.ru/forum/index.php?s=96614f238a324d246f718f5d8c010791&showtopic=24379&st=10&p=1084553entry1084553 // Help on CENTO and SEATO
3. http://www.nationalsecurity.ru/library/00013/00013part3c.htm // Views and concepts of regional security in Russia and the USSR
4. http://sun.tsu.ru/mminfo/000063105/323/image/323-163.pdf // US policy in connection with the transformation of the Baghdad Pact and the formation of the CENTO bloc. V.P. Rumyantsev

The Vietnam War is one of the largest military conflicts of the second half of the 20th century, which left a noticeable mark on culture and occupies a significant place in recent history USA and Vietnam. The war began as a civil war in South Vietnam; later, North Vietnam and the United States intervened in it with the support of a number of other countries. Thus, on the one hand, the war was fought for the reunification of the two parts of Vietnam and the creation of a single state with communist ideology, and on the other, for the preservation of the split of the country and the independence of South Vietnam. As events developed, the Vietnam War became intertwined with the parallel civil wars in Laos and Cambodia. All of the fighting in Southeast Asia from the late 1950s to 1975 is known as the Second Indo-China War.

The territory of Vietnam was temporarily divided along the 17th parallel into two parts that are not sovereign states. North Vietnam came under the control of the Viet Minh and became the territory of the DRV. South Vietnam remained under the rule of the local administration appointed by the French, and France, even before the agreements, managed to formally grant Vietnam independence. The pro-French emperor Bao Dai was in power here. The reunification of the country was supposed to take place after general free elections, which were to take place no later than mid-1956.

After the Geneva Accords, the United States embarked on a course of replacing France as a counterweight to the communist forces in Vietnam. The American administration has relied on Ngo Dinh Diem, a US supporter.

From the power of Emperor Bao Dai by holding rigged elections, after which he proclaimed the creation of a sovereign Republic of Vietnam, which was a violation of the Geneva agreements. The elections were thwarted, and the prospect of Vietnam's reunification was postponed indefinitely.

Diem's ​​regime very soon began to acquire the features of a dictatorship. Opposition to the Diem regime was suppressed through the use of pro-government media and police.

Diem began reprisals against the communist underground that remained in the country after 1954, although it was weak and did not pose a real threat to him. The repression was effective; faced with the threat of the complete elimination of their movement, the South Vietnamese communists decided to start an armed struggle. Since the fall of 1957, a low-intensity guerrilla war has been going on in South Vietnam.

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After the signing of the armistice, the South Vietnamese troops, richly supplied military equipment from the United States, had more than a million people, the armed forces of North Vietnam, stationed in the South, numbered more than two hundred thousand soldiers.

The ceasefire agreements in the territory of South Vietnam were not implemented. Both the communists and government troops during the fighting divided the territory under their control. The economic crisis of South Vietnam in 1974 contributed to the decline in the fighting qualities of government troops. Everything large quantity territories of South Vietnam fell under the rule of the Communists, the government troops of South Vietnam suffered losses. The successful operations of the communists at the end of 1974 showed the low combat effectiveness of the armed forces of South Vietnam. During the offensive operation carried out in March-April 1975, the communists defeated most of the South Vietnamese units. At 11:30 on April 30, 1975, the communists raised the banner over the Palace of Independence in Saigon - the war ended.

The second half of the twentieth century is a time of great confrontation between the two military-political blocs. On the one hand, this is NATO, and on the other hand, the OVD. The precursor to this confrontation was the Korean War of 1950-1953.

The beginning of the confrontation

The second World War allowed to unite countries with different views on the socio-political system, economic development. All this was done for the sake of victory over the common enemy - fascism. However, further the paths of the former allies parted. During the war years, the USSR has significantly strengthened in all respects, and other countries, primarily the United States, were forced to reckon with this. The final stage of the war took place at Far East... Here, American and Soviet troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Imperial Japanese Army. The consequence of this was the liberation of Korea from the Japanese troops - and at the same time the occupation of this country by the allied forces at that time. The north of the peninsula was controlled by Soviet and Chinese troops, and the southern part of it came under the authority of the American authorities.

"Appetites" of Korean leaders

According to the plans of the Allies, the division into zones of occupation was a temporary phenomenon. In the near future, it was supposed to combine both parts into a single whole. Nevertheless, both the American and Soviet sides seized the opportunity and began hastily to strengthen their influence in the parts of the peninsula assigned to them. In the south, with the support of the occupation administration, elections were held and Korean authorities were organized, led by Rhee Seung Man. He adhered to authoritarian management methods. Moreover, his political views were reactionary. He was one of the initiators of what later became known as the "Korean War." Its second direct initiator was the protege of the Soviet-Chinese forces, Kim Il Sung. Both sides announced the need for unification, but each wanted to do it under its own leadership. But no matter how strong these desires were, the real reason for this confrontation was the gradual deterioration in relations between the USSR and the United States.

Geopolitical rebus

On the part of the Soviet Union, there were fears that the United States, having subjugated Korea, would thereby pose a direct threat to the Far Eastern borders. After all, the peninsula had a land border with the USSR, and the Soviets did not want to have a hostile state at their side. The Americans, in turn, expressed concern about the unification of Korea under the supremacy of the "North", as this threatened their interests in Asia and, in addition, pushed the United States out of the Sea of ​​Japan. Therefore, these two superpowers were the true conductors of the events on the peninsula. Of course, the contradictions between the Korean leaders cannot be discarded. But they were of a secondary nature. As the Soviet-American contradictions intensified, including on the UN negotiation platforms, the rhetoric of the leaders of the "North" and "South" became increasingly harsh. They were not shy in expressions. At the same time, each side threatened to unite the country with bayonets. The Korean War was approaching at an alarming rate.

On the verge of confrontation

The government of Rhee Seung Man had a very modest military potential and could not withstand the northerners without American reinforcement. To avoid a direct clash of American and Soviet troops, in 1948 they were completely withdrawn from the peninsula. Only military advisers remained in the respective parts of the country. While the southerners verbally threatened Kim Il Sung, he strenuously prepared for a clash. Since 1948, the number of North Korean troops has gradually increased. The USSR helped with military equipment. However, Stalin rejected the request to help the "North" with manpower, fearing the outbreak of a new global conflict. For two years, from 1948 to 1950, intensive consultations took place between Moscow and Pyongyang, culminating in Kim Il Sung's visit to the USSR. Similar actions took place between Seoul and Washington. The contradictions reached such a level that the outbreak of hostilities was only a matter of time.

Korean War 1950-1953

At the end of June 1950, the troops of the northerners went on the offensive. The Korean War began, which lasted almost three years. The first stage of hostilities is marked by the complete superiority of the "North". For several months, his troops penetrated deep into the territory of the south of the peninsula. The government and senior officials left Seoul in a hurry. By the end of the year 1950, the Korean War is gaining global significance. The Americans understood that it was necessary to provide urgent assistance to the southerners. A number of decisions were passed through the UN, which the countries of the socialist bloc strongly condemned. Despite this, the United States insisted on its own, and under the auspices of the United Nations began to rush to support Seoul. American and British troops, as well as military equipment, began to arrive in Korea. Soon the successful offensive of the northerners was halted, and South Korean troops, supported by UN forces, launched a counteroffensive.

Military pendulum of luck

The war in South Korea under these conditions became a threat of defeat for the "North". The USSR and China could not allow this. Therefore, to help the northerners, the Soviet Union sent military specialists and a large number of technology. China, in turn, began sending a massive number of "volunteers" to the Korean front, the number of which has reached a million.

The Korean War became protracted. None of the parties to the conflict could achieve a military victory. Both Washington and Moscow began to understand this. During 1951-1952, hostilities continued with varying success. There was growing confidence in the futility of solving the problem by military means.

The change of leadership in the USA and the USSR was of no small importance for ending the war. Eisenhower, who became president at the end of 1952, took active steps to end the conflict, and in March 1953 J.V. Stalin died. The Central Committee Presidium spoke in favor of ending the war.

Fragile world

After intense negotiations, a ceasefire and prisoner exchange agreement was reached in July 1953, but the US war in Korea did not end there. To this day, the US military is guarding the borders of the Republic of Korea. The result of the agreement was the separation of the opposing sides along the 38th parallel, that is, the "status quo" that existed before the start of the war was achieved. DPRK and South Korea still have not signed a peace treaty, and skirmishes on the border are not uncommon today.

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