Red Army or White. Reds against whites: the peoples of Russia in the civil war

History of the Red Army

See main article History of the Red Army

Personnel

In general, the military ranks of junior officers (sergeants and foremen) of the Red Army correspond to the tsarist non-commissioned officers, the ranks of junior officers correspond to chief officers (the statutory address in the tsarist army is “your honor”), senior officers, from major to colonel - headquarters officers (the statutory address in the tsarist army is “your excellency”), senior officers, from major general to marshal - general (“your excellency”).

A more detailed correspondence of ranks can only be established approximately, due to the fact that the very number of military ranks varies. So, the rank of lieutenant roughly corresponds to a lieutenant, and the royal rank of captain roughly corresponds to the Soviet military rank of major.

It should also be noted that the insignia of the Red Army of the 1943 model were also not an exact copy of the royal ones, although they were created on their basis. So, the rank of colonel in the tsarist army was designated by shoulder straps with two longitudinal stripes, and without asterisks; in the Red Army - two longitudinal stripes, and three medium-sized stars arranged in a triangle.

Repressions 1937-1938

battle banner

The battle flag of one of the units of the Red Army during the Civil War:

The imperialist army is an instrument of oppression, the Red Army is an instrument of liberation.

For each unit or formation of the Red Army, its Battle Banner is sacred. It serves as the main symbol of the unit, and the embodiment of its military glory. In the event of the loss of the Battle Banner, the military unit is subject to disbandment, and those directly responsible for such disgrace - to the court. A separate guard post is established to guard the Battle Banner. Each soldier, passing by the banner, is obliged to give him a military salute. On especially solemn occasions, the troops carry out the ritual of the solemn removal of the Battle Banner. Being included in the banner group directly conducting the ritual is considered a great honor, which is awarded only to the most distinguished officers and ensigns.

Oath

Mandatory for recruits in any army in the world is to bring them to the oath. In the Red Army, this ritual is usually performed a month after the call, after completing the course of a young soldier. Before being sworn in, soldiers are forbidden to be trusted with weapons; there are a number of other restrictions. On the day of the oath, the soldier receives weapons for the first time; he breaks down, approaches the commander of his unit, and reads out a solemn oath to the formation. The oath is traditionally considered an important holiday, and is accompanied by the solemn removal of the Battle Banner.

The text of the oath has changed several times; The first option was as follows:

I, a citizen of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, joining the ranks of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army, take an oath and solemnly swear to be an honest, brave, disciplined, vigilant fighter, strictly keep military and state secrets, implicitly comply with all military regulations and orders of commanders, commissars and chiefs.

I swear to conscientiously study military affairs, to protect military property in every possible way, and to my last breath to be devoted to my people, my Soviet Motherland and the workers' and peasants' government.

I am always ready, on the orders of the Workers 'and Peasants' Government, to defend my Motherland - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and, as a soldier of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army, I swear to defend it courageously, skillfully, with dignity and honor, not sparing my blood and life itself to achieve complete victory over the enemy.

If, by malicious intent, I violate this solemn oath of mine, then let me suffer the severe punishment of Soviet law, the general hatred and contempt of the working people.

Late variant

I, a citizen of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, joining the ranks of the Armed Forces, take an oath and solemnly swear to be an honest, brave, disciplined, vigilant warrior, to strictly keep military and state secrets, to unquestioningly comply with all military regulations and orders of commanders and superiors.

I swear to conscientiously study military affairs, to protect military and national property in every possible way, and to my last breath to be devoted to my people, my Soviet Motherland and the Soviet government.

I am always ready, on the orders of the Soviet government, to defend my Motherland - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and, as a soldier of the Armed Forces, I swear to defend it courageously, skillfully, with dignity and honor, not sparing my blood and life itself in order to achieve complete victory over enemy.

If, however, I break this solemn oath of mine, then let me suffer the severe punishment of Soviet law, the general hatred and contempt of the Soviet people.

Modern version

I (surname, name, patronymic) solemnly swear allegiance to my Motherland - the Russian Federation.

I swear to sacredly observe its Constitution and laws, strictly comply with the requirements of military regulations, orders of commanders and superiors.

I swear to honorably fulfill military duty, courageously defend the freedom, independence and constitutional order of Russia, the people and the Fatherland.

Who are the "Reds" and "Whites"

If we are talking about the Red Army, then the Red Army was created, as a really active army, not so much by the Bolsheviks, but by those same former gold miners (former tsarist officers) who were mobilized or voluntarily went to serve the new government.

Some figures can be given to describe the extent of the myth that existed and still exists in public consciousness. After all, the main characters of the Civil War for the older and middle generation are Chapaev, Budyonny, Voroshilov and other "Reds". You will hardly find anyone else in our textbooks. Well, even Frunze, perhaps with Tukhachevsky.

In fact, not much fewer officers served in the Red Army than in the White armies. In all the White armies taken together, from Siberia to the Northwest, there were about 100,000 former officers. And in the Red Army there are approximately 70,000-75,000. Moreover, almost all the highest command posts in the Red Army were occupied by former officers and generals of the tsarist army.

This also applies to the composition of the field headquarters of the Red Army, which consisted almost entirely of former officers and generals, and to the commanders different levels. For example, 85% of all front commanders were former officers of the tsarist army.

So, in Russia everyone knows about the “reds” and “whites”. From school, and even preschool years. "Reds" and "Whites" - this is the history of the civil war, these are the events of 1917-1920. Who was then good, who is bad - in this case it does not matter. Ratings are changing. But the terms remained: “white” versus “red”. On the one hand - the armed forces of the young Soviet state, on the other - the opponents of this state. Soviet - "red". Opponents, respectively, are “white”.

According to official historiography, there were actually many opponents. But the main ones are those who have shoulder straps on their uniforms, and cockades of the Russian tsarist army on their caps. Recognizable opponents, not to be confused with anyone. Kornilov, Denikin, Wrangel, Kolchak, etc. They are white". First of all, they should be defeated by the “Reds”. They are also recognizable: they have no shoulder straps, and red stars on their caps. Such pictorial row civil war.

This is a tradition. It was approved by Soviet propaganda for more than seventy years. Propaganda was very effective, the graphic series became familiar, thanks to which the very symbolism of the civil war remained beyond comprehension. In particular, questions about the reasons that led to the choice of red and white flowers to represent opposing forces.

As for the “reds”, the reason was, it seems, obvious. The Reds called themselves that. Soviet troops were originally called the Red Guard. Then - the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army. The Red Army soldiers swore allegiance to the red banner. State flag. Why the flag was chosen red - explanations were given different. For example: it is a symbol of the “blood of freedom fighters”. But in any case, the name “red” corresponded to the color of the banner.

You can't say anything about the so-called "whites". Opponents of the "Reds" did not swear allegiance to the white banner. During the Civil War, there was no such banner at all. Nobody. Nevertheless, the name “White” was established behind the opponents of the “Reds”. At least one reason is also obvious here: the leaders of the Soviet state called their opponents "white". First of all - V. Lenin. To use his terminology, the "Reds" defended "the power of the workers and peasants", the power of the "workers' and peasants' government", and the "Whites" defended "the power of the tsar, the landlords and the capitalists". It was this scheme that was affirmed by all the might of Soviet propaganda.

They were called so in the Soviet press: "White Army", "White" or "White Guards". However, the reasons for choosing these terms were not explained. The question of the reasons was also avoided by Soviet historians. They reported something, but at the same time they literally evaded a direct answer.

The evasions of Soviet historians look rather strange. There would seem to be no reason to avoid the question of the history of terms. In fact, there was never any mystery here. But there was a propaganda scheme, which Soviet ideologists considered inappropriate to explain in reference publications.

It was in the Soviet era that the terms “red” and “white” were predictably associated with the civil war in Russia. And before 1917, the terms "white" and "red" were correlated with another tradition. Another civil war.

Beginning - the Great French Revolution. Confrontation between monarchists and republicans. Then, indeed, the essence of the confrontation was expressed at the level of the colors of the banners. The white banner was originally. This is the royal flag. Well, the red banner is the banner of the Republicans.

Armed sans-culottes gathered under red flags. It was under the red flag in August 1792 that the sans-culottes, organized by the then city government, marched to storm the Tuileries. That's when the red flag really became a banner. The banner of uncompromising Republicans. Radicals. The red banner and the white banner became symbols of the opposing sides. Republicans and monarchists. Later, as you know, the red banner was no longer so popular. The French tricolor became the national flag of the Republic. In the Napoleonic era, the red banner was almost forgotten. And after the restoration of the monarchy, it - as a symbol - completely lost its relevance.

This symbol was updated in the 1840s. Updated for those who declared themselves the heirs of the Jacobins. Then the opposition of “reds” and “whites” became a common place in journalism. But the French Revolution of 1848 ended with yet another restoration of the monarchy. Therefore, the opposition of “reds” and “whites” has again lost its relevance.

Again, the opposition "Reds" - "Whites" arose at the end of the Franco-Prussian war. Finally, it was established from March to May 1871, during the existence of the Paris Commune.

The city-republic of the Paris Commune was perceived as the realization of the most radical ideas. The Paris Commune declared itself the heir to the Jacobin traditions, the heir to the traditions of those sans-culottes who came out under the red banner to defend the “gains of the revolution”. The state flag was also a symbol of continuity. Red. Accordingly, the “reds” are the Communards. Defenders of the City-Republic.

As you know, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, many socialists declared themselves the heirs of the Communards. And at the beginning of the 20th century, the Bolsheviks called themselves such. Communists. It was they who considered the red banner to be theirs.

As for the confrontation with the “whites”, there seemed to be no contradictions here. By definition, socialists are opponents of the autocracy, therefore, nothing has changed. The "Reds" were still opposed to the "Whites". Republicans - monarchists.

After the abdication of Nicholas II, the situation changed. The king abdicated in favor of his brother, but his brother did not accept the crown. The Provisional Government was formed, so that the monarchy was no more, and the opposition of “reds” to “whites” seemed to have lost its relevance. The new Russian government, as you know, was called “provisional” for this reason, because it was supposed to prepare the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. And the Constituent Assembly, popularly elected, was to determine further forms Russian statehood. Determine democratically. The question of the abolition of the monarchy was considered already resolved.

But the Provisional Government lost power without having time to convene the Constituent Assembly, which was convened by the Council of People's Commissars. It is hardly worth discussing why the Council of People's Commissars considered it necessary to dissolve the Constituent Assembly now. In this case, something else is more important: most of the opponents of Soviet power set the task of convening the Constituent Assembly again. This was their slogan.

In particular, it was the slogan of the so-called Volunteer Army formed on the Don, which was eventually led by Kornilov. Other military leaders also fought for the Constituent Assembly, referred to in Soviet periodicals as “whites”. They fought against the Soviet state, not for the monarchy.

And here we should pay tribute to the talents of Soviet ideologists, the skill of Soviet propagandists. By declaring themselves "Red", the Bolsheviks were able to attach the label of "White" to their opponents. Managed to impose this label contrary to the facts.

Soviet ideologists declared all their opponents to be supporters of the destroyed regime - autocracy. They were declared "white". This label was itself a political argument. Every monarchist is “white” by definition. Accordingly, if “white”, then a monarchist.

The label was used even when it seemed ridiculous to use it. For example, “White Czechs”, “White Finns”, then “White Poles” arose, although the Czechs, Finns and Poles who fought with the “Reds” were not going to recreate the monarchy. Neither in Russia nor abroad. However, the label “white” was familiar to most of the “reds”, which is why the term itself seemed understandable. If “white”, then always “for the king”. Opponents of the Soviet government could prove that they - for the most part - are not monarchists at all. But there was no way to prove it. Soviet ideologists had a major advantage in the information war: in the territory controlled by the Soviet government, political events were discussed only in the Soviet press. There was almost no other. All opposition publications were closed. Yes, and Soviet publications were tightly controlled by censorship. The population practically had no other sources of information. On the Don, where Soviet newspapers were not yet read, Kornilovites, and then Denikinites, were called not “whites”, but “volunteers” or “cadets”.

But not all Russian intellectuals, despising the Soviet regime, were in a hurry to join forces with its opponents. With those who were called “whites” in the Soviet press. They were indeed perceived as monarchists, and intellectuals saw the monarchists as a danger to democracy. Moreover, the danger is no less than the communists. Still, the “Reds” were perceived as Republicans. Well, the victory of the “whites” meant the restoration of the monarchy. Which was unacceptable for intellectuals. And not only for intellectuals - for the majority of the population of the former Russian Empire. Why did Soviet ideologists affirm the labels “red” and “white” in the public mind.

Thanks to these labels, not only Russians, but also many Western public figures comprehended the struggle of supporters and opponents of Soviet power as a struggle between republicans and monarchists. Supporters of the republic and supporters of the restoration of autocracy. And the Russian autocracy was considered in Europe as savagery, a relic of barbarism.

Therefore, the support of supporters of autocracy among Western intellectuals caused a predictable protest. Western intellectuals have discredited the actions of their governments. They set public opinion against them, which governments could not ignore. With all the ensuing grave consequences - for the Russian opponents of Soviet power. Therefore, the so-called “whites” were losing the propaganda war. Not only in Russia, but also abroad. Yes, it appears that the so-called “whites” were essentially “reds”. Only it didn't change anything. The propagandists who sought to help Kornilov, Denikin, Wrangel and other opponents of the Soviet regime were not as energetic, talented, and efficient as the Soviet propagandists.

Moreover, the tasks solved by Soviet propagandists were much simpler. Soviet propagandists could clearly and briefly explain why and with whom the "Reds" were fighting. True, no, it doesn't matter. The main thing is to be brief and clear. The positive part of the program was obvious. Ahead is the kingdom of equality, justice, where there are no poor and humiliated, where there will always be plenty of everything. Opponents, respectively, are the rich, fighting for their privileges. "Whites" and allies of "whites". Because of them, all the troubles and hardships. There will be no “whites”, there will be no troubles, no hardships.

Opponents of the Soviet regime could not clearly and briefly explain what they were fighting for. Such slogans as the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, the preservation of "one and indivisible Russia" were not and could not be popular. Of course, the opponents of the Soviet regime could more or less convincingly explain with whom and why they were fighting. However, the positive part of the program remained unclear. And there was no such general program.

In addition, in the territories not controlled by the Soviet government, opponents of the regime failed to achieve an information monopoly. This is partly why the results of the propaganda were incommensurable with the results of the Bolshevik propagandists.

It is difficult to determine whether the Soviet ideologists consciously immediately imposed the label of “whites” on their opponents, whether they intuitively chose such a move. In any case, they made a good choice, and most importantly, they acted consistently and efficiently. Convincing the population that the opponents of the Soviet regime are fighting for the restoration of autocracy. Because they are "white".

Of course, there were monarchists among the so-called “whites”. The real whites. Defended the principles of autocratic monarchy long before its fall.

But in the Volunteer Army, as in other armies that fought the "Reds", there were negligibly few monarchists. Why didn't they play any important role?

For the most part, ideological monarchists generally avoided participation in the civil war. This was not their war. They had no one to fight for.

Nicholas II was not forcibly deprived of the throne. The Russian emperor abdicated voluntarily. And released from the oath all those who swore to him. His brother did not accept the crown, so the monarchists did not swear allegiance to the new king. Because there was no new king. There was no one to serve, no one to protect. The monarchy no longer existed.

Undoubtedly, it was not fitting for a monarchist to fight for the Council of People's Commissars. However, it did not follow from anywhere that a monarchist should - in the absence of a monarch - fight for the Constituent Assembly. Both the Council of People's Commissars and the Constituent Assembly were not legitimate authorities for the monarchist.

For a monarchist, legitimate power is only the power of the God-given monarch to whom the monarchist swore allegiance. Therefore, the war with the "Reds" - for the monarchists - became a matter of personal choice, and not of religious duty. For a “white”, if he is really “white”, those fighting for the Constituent Assembly are “reds”. Most monarchists did not want to understand the shades of "red". It did not see the point in fighting against other “Reds” together with some “Reds”.

The tragedy of the Civil War, which, according to one version, ended in November 1920 in the Crimea, was that it brought two camps together in an irreconcilable battle, each of which was sincerely devoted to Russia, but understood this Russia in its own way. On both sides there were scoundrels who warmed their hands in this war, who organized the red and white terror, who unscrupulously tried to cash in on other people's property and who made a career on horrific examples of bloodthirstiness. But at the same time, on both sides, there were people full of nobility, devotion to the Motherland, who put the well-being of the Fatherland above all else, including personal happiness. Recall at least "Walking through the torments" by Alexei Tolstoy.

The "Russian split" went through families, dividing native people. Let me give you a Crimean example - the family of one of the first rectors of the Taurida University, Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky. He, Doctor of Science, professor, remains in the Crimea, with the Reds, and his son, also Doctor of Science, Professor Georgy Vernadsky, goes into exile with the Whites. Or brothers Admirals Berens. One is a white admiral who takes the Russian Black Sea squadron to distant Tunisia, to Bizerte, and the second is a red one, and it is he who will go to this Tunisia in 1924 to return the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to their homeland. Or let us recall how M. Sholokhov describes the split in Cossack families in The Quiet Don.

And there are many such examples. The horror of the situation was that in this fierce battle for self-destruction for the amusement of the world around us, hostile to us, we Russians did not destroy each other, but ourselves. At the end of this tragedy, we literally "threw" the whole world with Russian brains and talents.

In the history of every modern country (England, France, Germany, USA, Argentina, Australia) there are examples of scientific progress, outstanding creative achievements associated with the activities of Russian emigrants, including great scientists, military leaders, writers, artists, engineers, inventors, thinkers, farmers.

Our Sikorsky, a friend of Tupolev, practically created the entire American helicopter industry. Russian emigrants founded a number of leading universities in the Slavic countries. Vladimir Nabokov created a new European and a new American novel. Nobel Prize presented to France by Ivan Bunin. The economist Leontiev, the physicist Prigozhin, the biologist Metalnikov and many others became famous all over the world.

Civil War and intervention

Civil war is an organized armed struggle for state power between social groups of one country. It cannot be fair on either side, it weakens the international position of the country, its material and intellectual resources.

Causes of the Russian Civil War

1. Economic crisis.
2. The tension of social relations.
3. Exacerbation of all existing contradictions in society.
4. Proclamation by the Bolsheviks of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
5. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly.
6. Intolerance of representatives of the majority of parties to opponents.
7. The signing of the Brest peace, which offended the patriotic feelings of the population, especially the officers and the intelligentsia.
8. The economic policy of the Bolsheviks (nationalization, the elimination of landownership, surplus appropriation).
9. Bolshevik abuse of power.
10. Intervention of the Entente and the Austro-German bloc in the internal affairs of Soviet Russia.

Social forces after the victory of the October Revolution

1. Those who supported the Soviet government: the industrial and rural proletariat, the poor, the lower ranks of the officers, part of the intelligentsia - the "Reds".
2. Opposing Soviet power: the big bourgeoisie, landowners, a significant part of the officers, the former police and gendarmerie, part of the intelligentsia - "whites".
3. The vacillators, who periodically joined either the “Reds” or the “Whites”: the urban and rural petty bourgeoisie, the peasantry, part of the proletariat, part of the officers, a significant part of the intelligentsia.

The decisive force in the Civil War was the peasantry, the largest stratum of the population.

By concluding the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the government of the Russian Republic was able to concentrate forces to defeat internal opponents. In April 1918, compulsory military training for workers was introduced, on military service began to attract tsarist officers and generals. In September 1918, by the decision of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the country was turned into a military camp, domestic policy was subordinated to one task - victory in the Civil War. The highest body of military power was created - the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic (RVC) under the chairmanship of L. D. Trotsky. In November 1918, under the chairmanship of V. I. Lenin, the Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense was formed, which was granted unlimited rights in the matter of mobilizing the country's forces and means in the interests of the war.

In May 1918, the Czechoslovak Corps and the White Guard formations captured the Trans-Siberian Railway. Soviet power in the occupied areas was overthrown. With the establishment of control over Siberia, the Supreme Council of the Entente in July 1918 decided to start intervention in Russia.

In the summer of 1918, anti-Bolshevik uprisings swept through the Southern Urals, the North Caucasus, Turkestan and other regions. Siberia, the Urals, part of the Volga region and the North Caucasus, the European North passed into the hands of the interventionists and the White Guards.

In August 1918, in Petrograd, left socialist-revolutionaries killed the chairman of the Petrograd Cheka, M. S. Uritsky, and V. I. Lenin was wounded in Moscow. These acts were used by the Council of People's Commissars to carry out mass terror. The reasons for the "white" and "red" terror were: the desire of both sides for dictatorship, the lack of democratic traditions, the depreciation of human life.

In the spring of 1918, the Volunteer Army was formed in the Kuban under the command of General L. G. Kornilov. After his death (April 1918), A. I. Denikin became the commander. In the second half of 1918, the Volunteer Army occupied the entire North Caucasus.

In May 1918, an uprising of Cossacks against Soviet power broke out on the Don. P. N. Krasnov was elected ataman, who occupied the Don region, joined the Voronezh and Saratov provinces.

In February 1918 the German army invaded Ukraine. In February 1919, the Entente troops landed in the southern ports of Ukraine. In 1918 - early 1919, Soviet power was eliminated on 75% of the country's territory. However, the anti-Soviet forces were politically fragmented, they lacked a unified program of struggle and a unified plan of combat operations.

In the middle of 1919, the White movement merged with the Entente, which relied on A. I. Denikin. The Volunteer and Don armies merged into the Armed Forces of the South of Russia. In May 1919, the troops of A. I. Denikin occupied the Don region, Donbass, part of Ukraine.

In September, the Volunteer Army captured Kursk, and the Don Army captured Voronezh. V. I. Lenin wrote an appeal “Everyone to fight Denikin!”, An additional mobilization into the Red Army was carried out. Having received reinforcements, the Soviet troops in October-November 1919 launched a counteroffensive. Kursk, Donbass were liberated, in January 1920 - Tsaritsyn, Novocherkassk, Rostov-on-Don. In the winter of 1919-1920. The Red Army liberated the Right-Bank Ukraine and occupied Odessa.

The Caucasian front of the Red Army in January-April 1920 advanced to the borders of the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics. In April 1920, Denikin handed over command of the remnants of his troops to General P.N. Wrangel, who began to fortify himself in the Crimea and form the "Russian Army".

The counter-revolution in Siberia was led by Admiral A. V. Kolchak. In November 1918, he carried out a military coup in Omsk and established his own dictatorship. The troops of A. I. Kolchak began hostilities in the region of Perm, Vyatka, Kotlas. In March 1919, Kolchak's troops took Ufa, and in April, Izhevsk. However, due to the extremely tough policy, discontent in the rear of Kolchak increased. In March 1919, to fight A.V. Kolchak in the Red Army, the Northern (commander V.I. Shorin) and Southern (commander M.V. Frunze) groups of troops were created. In May-June 1919, they captured Ufa and pushed Kolchak's troops back to the foothills of the Urals. During the capture of Ufa, the 25th Rifle Division, led by the division commander V. I. Chapaev, especially distinguished itself.

In October 1919, the troops captured Petropavlovsk and Ishim, and in January 1920 they completed the defeat of Kolchak's army. With access to Lake Baikal, Soviet troops suspended further advance to the east in order to avoid a war with Japan, which occupied part of the territory of Siberia.

In the midst of the struggle of the Soviet Republic against A. V. Kolchak, the offensive against Petrograd of the troops of General N. N. Yudenich began. In May 1919, they took Gdov, Yamburg and Pskov, but the Red Army managed to push N. N. Yudenich back from Petrograd. In October 1919, he made another attempt to capture Petrograd, but this time his troops were defeated.

By the spring of 1920, the main forces of the Entente were evacuated from the territory of Russia - from the Transcaucasus, from the Far East, from the North. The Red Army won decisive victories over large formations of the White Guards.

In April 1920, the offensive of the Polish troops on Russia and Ukraine began. The Poles managed to capture Kiev and push the Soviet troops back to the left bank of the Dnieper. The Polish Front was urgently created. In May 1920, the Soviet troops of the Southwestern Front under the command of A. I. Yegorov went on the offensive. It was a serious strategic miscalculation of the Soviet command. The troops, having traveled 500 km, broke away from their reserves and rear lines. On the outskirts of Warsaw, they were stopped and, under the threat of encirclement, were forced to retreat with heavy losses from the territory not only of Poland, but also of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus. The result of the war was a peace treaty signed in Riga in March 1921. According to it, a territory with a population of 15 million people retreated to Poland. The western border of Soviet Russia now ran 30 km from Minsk. The Soviet-Polish war undermined the confidence of the Poles in the communists and contributed to the deterioration of Soviet-Polish relations.

By the beginning of June 1920, P. N. Wrangel entrenched himself in the Northern Black Sea region. The Southern Front was formed against the Wrangelites under the command of M.V. Frunze. A major battle between the troops of P. N. Wrangel and units of the Red Army took place on the Kakhovka bridgehead.

The troops of P. N. Wrangel retreated to the Crimea and occupied the fortifications on the Perekop Isthmus and at the crossings across the Sivash Strait. The main line of defense ran along the Turkish Wall, 8 meters high and 15 meters wide at the base. Two attempts to take the Turkish Wall were unsuccessful for the Soviet troops. Then a crossing over the Sivash was undertaken, which was carried out on the night of November 8 at 12-degree frost. The fighters walked for 4 hours in icy water. On the night of November 9, the assault on Perekop began, which was taken by evening. On November 11, the troops of P. N. Wrangel began to evacuate from the Crimea. Several thousand White Guards who surrendered were treacherously shot under the leadership of B. Kun and R. Zemlyachka.

In 1920 Soviet Russia signed peace treaties with Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. In 1920, the Bolsheviks achieved the formation of the Khorezm and Bukhara People's Soviet Republics. Relying on communist organizations in Transcaucasia, the Red Army entered Baku in April 1920, Yerevan in November, and Tiflis (Tbilisi) in February 1921. The Soviet republics of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia were created here.

By the beginning of 1921, the Red Army had established control over a significant part of the territory of the former Russian Empire, with the exception of Finland, Poland, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia. The main fronts of the Civil War were eliminated. Until the end of 1922, hostilities continued in the Far East and until the mid-20s. in Central Asia.

Results of the Civil War

1. The death of about 12-13 million people.
2. Loss of Moldova, Bessarabia, Western Ukraine and Belarus.
3. The collapse of the economy.
4. The division of society into "us" and "them".
5. Devaluation of human life.
6. The death of the best part of the nation.
7. The fall of the international prestige of the state.

"War Communism"

In 1918-1919. the socio-economic policy of the Soviet government was determined, which was called "war communism". The main goal of the introduction of "war communism" was to subjugate all the resources of the country and use them to win the Civil War.

The main elements of the policy of "war communism"

1. food dictatorship.
2. Prodrazverstka.
3. Prohibition of free trade.
4. Nationalization of the whole industry and its management through the main boards.
5. General labor service.
6. Militarization of labor, formation of labor armies (since 1920).
7. Card system of distribution of products and goods.

The food dictatorship is a system of emergency measures taken by the Soviet state against the peasants. It was introduced in March 1918 and included the centralized procurement and distribution of food, the establishment of a state monopoly on the grain trade, and the forced seizure of bread.

Prodrazverstka was a system of procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet state in 1919-1921, which provided for the mandatory delivery by peasants of all surpluses (in excess of the established norms for personal and household needs) of bread and other products at fixed prices. Often, not only surpluses, but also necessary reserves were selected.

The Great Russian Revolution, 1905-1922 Lyskov Dmitry Yurievich

6. The balance of power: who are the "whites", who are the "reds"?

The most stable stereotype regarding the Civil War in Russia is the confrontation between the "whites" and the "reds" - troops, leaders, ideas, political platforms. Above, we examined the problems of establishing Soviet power on the western borders of the empire and in the Cossack regions, from which it already follows that the number of warring parties during the Civil War was much wider. Nationwide, the number of active entities will further increase.

Below we will try to outline the entire spectrum of forces involved in the confrontation. But first, we note that the opposition "white" - "red" only at first glance seems to be an ordinary simplification. In a certain interpretation of events, it has a right to exist, moreover, this is how it was used in numerous documents and publications, and we need to figure out what meaning the revolutionaries of the early 20th century put into these concepts.

The definitions of "white" and "red" were borrowed Russian society from the works of K. Marx and F. Engels, from their analysis of the Great French Revolution. White color was a symbol of the Bourbons - ruling family, whose coat of arms depicted a white lily. French counter-revolutionaries, supporters of the monarchy, raised this color to their banners. For the enlightened circles of Europe, for a long time he became a symbol of reaction, opposition to progress, against democracy and the republic.

Later, Engels, analyzing the course of the revolution in Hungary in 1848-49, wrote: "For the first time in a revolutionary movement ... for the first time since 1793(Jacobin terror - D.L.) the nation, surrounded by the superior forces of the counter-revolution, dares to oppose the cowardly counter-revolutionary fury with revolutionary passion, oppose terreur blanche - terreur rouge.(white terror - red terror).

The concept of "red" was also borrowed from the French revolutionaries. It is generally accepted that the red banner is the banner of the Paris Commune (1871). The Parisians, in turn, back in the time of the French Revolution (1789) borrowed the revolutionary symbol from the rebellious slaves of Spartacus, whose pennant, raised on the shaft of a spear, was a red Phrygian cap, a long hat with a curved top, a symbol of a free man. famous painting Delacroix's "Liberty Leading the People" ("Freedom on the Barricades") depicts a woman with a bare chest and a Phrygian cap on her head.

The question of designating revolutionary and counter-revolutionary forces in Russia, therefore, did not arise. With one single nuance: in the canonical interpretation, "whites" meant "counter-revolutionaries, supporters of the monarchy." But back in the summer of 1917, this label was pasted to the Kornilovites - however, the propaganda of the Provisional Government characterized the participants in the rebellion in precisely this way, accusing them of striving to strangle the revolution and restore the old order.

In reality, of course, Kornilov did not strive for any restoration of the monarchy - he adhered to republican views, although he understood them in a very peculiar way. But in the heat of the revolution, few people paid attention to such nuances - propaganda pursued a specific goal, hanging labels and intimidating the layman with the newly overthrown tsarism.

Subsequently, the concept of "whites" in the sense of "counter-revolutionaries" was established and actively used to refer to all organizations, no matter what revolution they opposed and no matter what views they held. So, in addition to the White movement itself - the Volunteer Army, the concepts of "White Finns", "White Cossacks", etc., were in use, despite the fact that they were completely different politically, organizationally and in terms of declared goals of the force.

By and large, none of them sought to restore the monarchy, but rational knowledge is one thing, and military propaganda is quite another. And therefore, as you know, the "White Army and the Black Baron" again prepared the royal throne for us.

These nuances in the interpretation of terms must be kept in mind when considering further developments. For early Soviet sources, especially for the media and propaganda, "whites" is a generalizing concept. On the other hand, for emigrant sources focused on the history of the army of Kornilov, Denikin and Wrangel, which adopted the definition of "white" as a self-name (in interpretations of "purity of thoughts", for example), this is almost exclusively the Volunteer Army. Finally, we note that in late Soviet mass history, these interpretations practically merged, de facto ousting all other parties to the conflict, except for the conditional red commissars and no less conditional white officers. In addition, the propaganda cliche about the royal throne began to be perceived as an indisputable truth, as a result of which many perestroika mummers "White Guards", marching through the streets with portraits of Nicholas II, experienced acute cognitive dissonance, finally reaching the memoirs of their idols and finding out that the monarchists in the Volunteer Army were persecuted and repressed.

However, let us return to the assessment of the forces involved in the confrontation of the Civil War. As already mentioned, it was sometimes completely opposite ideologically, organizationally, and even in terms of citizenship. All these forces in the course of an armed conflict interacted, entered into alliances, supported each other or were at enmity. Sometimes patriotic white officers, whose main idea was a single and indivisible Russia and loyalty to allied obligations - the war with Germany to the bitter end - gladly accepted help from the Germans. At the same time, another part of the White movement was at war with the nationalists of the outskirts. The units of the tsarist army stationed in Finland, which had not yet been demobilized, entered the fight against the White Finns, many of them stood under the banner of the Red Guard and then joined the Red Army. Socialist governments arose as a result of a revolt of foreign units stationed in Russia, the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries tried to turn the detachments of the Cheka and the Red Army against the Bolsheviks, etc., etc.

The "independent" states on the western border created their own national armies, but these "states" themselves were a base for the "white" units, on which one could always rely, if necessary, retreat for rest or regrouping. So, Yudenich and his Northwestern Army used the Baltic states as a springboard for campaigns against Petrograd. By the way, the already familiar Don ataman, the tsarist general Krasnov, fought in the North-Western Army, whose fate seems to be the embodiment of the chaos of the Civil War in miniature. In October 1917, under the flag of the Provisional Government, he, together with Kerensky, led troops to Petrograd. Released by the Soviets on parole, he returned to the Don, where he concluded a military alliance with Germany. Here, at first, his relations with Denikin's "volunteers" did not work out - both because of separatist sentiments and because of an alliance with the occupation command. However, subsequently the Don Army of Krasnov joined the Armed Forces of the South of Russia, then Krasnov fought in the North-Western Army, emigrated in 1920. During the Great Patriotic War went over to the side of the Nazis.

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Where are the reds, where are the whites? Soviet historians portrayed the Civil War in Russia as an attempt by the White Guards to overthrow the "young republic of workers and peasants" and put the tsar on the throne again, return the power of the capitalists and landlords. In fact, everything was much

Almost a century later, the events that unfolded shortly after the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks and resulted in a four-year fratricidal slaughter receive a new assessment. War of the Red and White armies, long years presented by the Soviet ideology in the form of a heroic page in our history, today it is regarded as a national tragedy, to prevent the repetition of which is the duty of every true patriot.

Beginning of the Way of the Cross

Historians disagree on the specific date of the start of the Civil War, but it is traditionally customary to call the last decade of 1917. This view is based mainly on three events that took place during this period.

Among them, it should be noted the performance of the forces of General P.N. Red in order to suppress the Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd on October 25, then on November 2 - the beginning of the formation on the Don by General M.V. Alekseev of the Volunteer Army, and, finally, the publication of P.N. Milyukov, which essentially became a declaration of war.

Speaking about the social class structure of the officers who became the head of the White movement, one should immediately point out the fallacy of the ingrained idea that it was formed exclusively from representatives of the highest aristocracy.

A similar picture became a thing of the past after the military reform of Alexander II, carried out in the period of the 60-70s of the XIX century and opened the way to army command posts for representatives of all classes. For example, one of the main figures of the White movement, General A.I. Denikin was the son of a serf, and L.G. Kornilov grew up in the family of a cornet Cossack army.

The social composition of the Russian officers

The stereotype developed during the years of Soviet power, according to which the White army was led exclusively by people who called themselves "white bones", is fundamentally wrong. In fact, they were representatives of all social strata of society.

In this regard, it would be appropriate to cite the following data: the graduation of infantry schools in the last two pre-revolutionary years consisted of 65% of former peasants, in connection with which, out of every 1000 ensigns of the tsarist army, about 700 were, as they say, “from the plow”. In addition, it is known that for the same number of officers, 250 people came from the bourgeois, merchant, and working environment, and only 50 from the nobility. What kind of “white bone” could we talk about in this case?

White army at the beginning of the war

The beginning of the White movement in Russia looked rather modest. According to reports, in January 1918, only 700 Cossacks, led by General A.M., joined him. Kaledin. This was explained by the complete demoralization of the tsarist army by the end of the First World War and the general unwillingness to fight.

The vast majority of servicemen, including officers, defiantly ignored the order to mobilize. Only with great difficulty, by the beginning of full-scale hostilities, the White Volunteer Army was able to replenish its ranks to 8 thousand people, of which about 1 thousand were staffed by officers.

The symbolism of the White Army was quite traditional. In contrast to the red banners of the Bolsheviks, the defenders of the former world order chose a white-blue-red banner, which was the official state flag of Russia, approved at one time Alexander III. In addition, the well-known double-headed eagle was also a symbol of their struggle.

Siberian rebel army

It is known that the answer to the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks in Siberia was the creation of underground combat centers in many of its large cities, headed by former officers of the tsarist army. The signal for their open action was the uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps, formed in September 1917 from among the captured Slovaks and Czechs, who then expressed a desire to take part in the struggle against Austria-Hungary and Germany.

Their rebellion, which broke out against the background of general dissatisfaction with the Soviet authorities, served as the detonator of a social explosion that swept the Urals, the Volga region, Far East and Siberia. Based on disparate battle groups in short term the West Siberian Army was formed, headed by an experienced military leader, General A.N. Grishin-Almazov. Its ranks were rapidly replenished with volunteers and soon reached the number of 23 thousand people.

Very soon, the White army, united with parts of Yesaul G.M. Semyonov, got the opportunity to control the territory stretching from Baikal to the Urals. It was a huge force, consisting of 71 thousand soldiers, supported by 115 thousand local volunteers.

Army that fought on the Northern Front

During the years of the Civil War, hostilities were conducted almost throughout the country, and, in addition to the Siberian Front, the future of Russia was also decided in the South, North-West and North. It was on it, as historians testify, that the concentration of the most professionally trained military personnel who went through the First World War took place.

It is known that many officers and generals of the White Army who fought on the Northern Front got there from Ukraine, where they escaped the terror unleashed by the Bolsheviks only thanks to the help of German troops. This largely explained their subsequent sympathy for the Entente and partly even Germanophilia, which often caused conflicts with other military personnel. In general, it should be noted that the White army that fought in the north was relatively small.

White forces on the Northwestern Front

The White Army, which opposed the Bolsheviks in the northwestern regions of the country, was mainly formed thanks to the support of the Germans and, after their departure, consisted of about 7 thousand bayonets. Despite the fact that, according to experts, among other fronts, this one was distinguished by a low level of training, the White Guard units were lucky on it for a long time. To a large extent this contributed a large number of volunteers joining the army.

Among them, two contingents of persons were distinguished by increased combat readiness: the sailors of the flotilla, created in 1915 on Lake Peipus, as well as former Red Army soldiers who went over to the side of the Whites - cavalrymen of the detachments of Permykin and Balakhovich. Significantly replenished the growing army of local peasants, as well as high school students who were subject to mobilization.

Military contingent in southern Russia

And, finally, the main front of the Civil War, on which the fate of the whole country was decided, was the South. The hostilities that unfolded on it covered a territory equal in area to two average European states and had a population of more than 34 million people. It is important to note that, thanks to the developed industry and the multifaceted agriculture, this part of Russia could exist independently of the rest of the country.

The generals of the White Army who fought on this front under the command of A.I. Denikin, were all, without exception, highly educated military specialists who already had the experience of the First World War behind them. In addition, they had at their disposal a developed transport infrastructure, which included railways and seaports.

All this was a prerequisite for future victories, but the general unwillingness to fight, as well as the lack of a single ideological base, eventually led to defeat. The entire politically motley contingent of troops, consisting of liberals, monarchists, democrats, etc., was united only by hatred of the Bolsheviks, which, unfortunately, did not become a sufficiently strong link.

An army far from ideal

It can be said with confidence that the White Army in the Civil War failed to fully realize its potential, and among many reasons, one of the main reasons was the unwillingness to let the peasants, who made up the majority of the population of Russia, into its ranks. Those of them who could not avoid mobilization soon became deserters, greatly weakening the combat capability of their units.

It is also important to take into account that the white army was an extremely heterogeneous composition of people both socially and spiritually and morally. Along with the true heroes, ready to sacrifice themselves in the fight against the impending chaos, it was joined by many scum who took advantage of the fratricidal war to commit violence, robbery and looting. It also deprived the army of universal support.

It must be admitted that the White Army of Russia was far from always being the "holy army" so sonorously sung by Marina Tsvetaeva. By the way, her husband, Sergei Efron, an active participant in the volunteer movement, also wrote about this in his memoirs.

The hardships suffered by the white officers

Over the course of almost a century that has passed since those dramatic times, a certain stereotype of the image of the White Guard officer has been developed by mass art in the minds of most Russians. He appears, as a rule, as a nobleman, dressed in a uniform with golden shoulder straps, whose favorite pastime is drunkenness and singing sentimental romances.

In reality, things were different. As the memoirs of the participants in those events testify, the White Army faced extraordinary difficulties in the Civil War, and officers had to fulfill their duty with a constant shortage of not only weapons and ammunition, but even the most necessary things for life - food and uniforms.

The assistance provided by the Entente was not always timely and sufficient in scope. In addition, the general morale of the officers was depressingly influenced by the consciousness of the need to wage war against their own people.

bloody lesson

In the years that followed perestroika, there was a rethinking of most of the events Russian history related to the revolution and the civil war. The attitude towards many participants in that great tragedy, who were previously considered enemies of their own Fatherland, has changed radically. Nowadays, not only the commanders of the White Army, such as A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and the like, but also all those who went into battle under the Russian tricolor, took a worthy place in people's memory. Today, it is important that that fratricidal nightmare become a worthy lesson, and the current generation has made every effort to ensure that it never happens again, no matter how political passions boil in the country.