Stylistic stratification of Russian vocabulary, emotional and expressive coloring of words. Emotionally expressive coloring of words

Expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression.

The emotionally expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing the synonyms of stylistically neutral, high and low: face - muzzle - face, obstacle - hindrance - obstacle, cry - cry - sob, fear - coward - fear.

Emotionally expressive words are distributed between bookish, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.

The book vocabulary includes words that are used mainly in the book-writing sphere of the language. It includes lofty words that give speech solemnity, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both a positive and a negative assessment of the named concepts. In book styles, ironic vocabulary is used ( good-heartedness, words, quixotic), disapproving ( pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous ( disguise, corrupt).

Linguistic means with an emotionally expressive coloring are divided into reclamation, expressing a positive attitude (assessment) to the expressed ( enthusiastic, delightful, unyielding, soulful), and pejorative expressing negative attitude (ringleader, conciliation, white-handed, servile, condone, boast).

Among the positive colors stand out sublime, solemn, rhetorical (indestructible, selfless, power, aspirations, hoist), approving (amazing, magnificent, wonderful),affectionate (daughter, little dear, lamb) and others, among negative disparaging(a nonsense, a pharmacist, a doctor, a chatterbox, a dickhead, a herd of sheep, stare like a ram at a new gate), contemptuous(anonymous, bourgeois, bazaar woman), disapproving (sloth, grouch, trudge), ironic(kill the beaver- to be deceived in calculations, spill balm to anything, buzz for an hour), abusive(swindler, reptile, viper about a human, bureaucrat, rogue) and etc.

In book vocabulary, groups of words of functional styles in the narrow sense are distinguished against the background of neutral words.

1. Lexicon of the scientific style. First of all, it includes the words terms expressing scientific concepts. Terms- words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art.

a) General scientific classification vocabulary, i.e. vocabulary used in a number of sciences, groups of sciences, or even all sciences (for example: classification, function, argument, approbation, differentiate etc.).

b) Highly specialized vocabulary. Vocabulary of certain sciences: oxide, molecule, hydrate, polymer (chemistry); vector, leg, logarithm, divisor, cosine(maths); etymology, orthoepy, stylistics, phoneme(linguistics), etc.

In addition to the actual terminological vocabulary in scientific style widely used abstract (abstract) general book vocabulary: movement, hesitation, beginning, position, comparison... Quite often, abbreviations (compound abbreviated words) of a terminological nature are also found in it: Efficiency(efficiency), computer(electronic computer), LSG(lexico-semantic group), etc. Significant place, especially in the language of exact sciences, is occupied by symbols: x, H2O, R, = and etc.

Sometimes, as a special kind of scientific vocabulary, the so-called production-technical and professional-terminological vocabulary of a book-written nature : adjustment, forming, grinding, casting, rolling etc.

2. Vocabulary of the official business style. This vocabulary is distinguished by an almost complete absence of emotional and evaluative shades, anti-expressiveness, strict isolation within the limits of its own style, and consistency. Therefore, its use in other variants of the language (especially in colloquial speech) is highly undesirable.

Taking into account the varieties of the most official business style, it includes:

a) Stationery and business vocabulary: citizen, subscriber, customer, client, enroll, reside, hand over, watering other. A significant place in this subgroup is occupied by service words: by virtue, at the expense, for the purposes, according to(what), concerning(what), insofar as etc.

b) Official documentary vocabulary: decides, notifies, should, should, necessary.

c) Judicial-legal: guilt, punishment, applicant, submitter, witness, accomplice, cassation etc.

d) Diplomatic vocabulary: residence, attaché, ambassador, attorney(in business), ratification, mission.

According to another classification in the official business vocabulary, there are:

a) Official terminological: widely used (law, decree, passport, application, protocol) and highly specialized (sanction, plaintiff, defendant, investigation - legal).

b) Stationery: undersigned, collect, be present, satisfy, above. Service words and phrases: in accordance with (with what), in the case (what), and also, by virtue of that.

3. Lexicon of journalistic style. Two groups of words are usually distinguished here.

a) Special journalistic terminology: interview, reportage, chronicle, columnist.

b) Social and political terminology: discrimination, genocide, avant-garde, democracy, peaceful.

It should also be noted the widespread use of emotional and evaluative vocabulary in the journalistic style: coming, accomplishment, creator etc.

In a number of genres of journalistic style, official business vocabulary can also be used.

4. With a broad understanding of functional styles, functional-stylistic vocabulary also includes vocabulary artistic style. As already noted, elements of all other variants of the national language are used in artistic speech, therefore it makes no sense to talk about some kind of lexical uniformity of the artistic style. Sometimes the so-called poetisms: lyre, nectar, virgin, wondrous, former, fatherly, say, cherish, blaze etc. But, of course, they do not in any way determine artistic speech as a whole. A very special circle forms folk poetry vocabulary: goryushko, darling, kruchina, fine, azure other.

The main features of artistic speech are not in the presence of any special words in the artistic style, but in the special use of any words for artistic and expressive purposes.

Oral and colloquial vocabulary

1. Literary and colloquial vocabulary... This includes words that are used mainly in LRR (literary colloquial speech) and giving it a colloquial character or literary colloquial.

a) Colloquial vocabulary proper- vocabulary, common, common in the field of LRR. Colloquial vocabulary includes affectionate words ( darling, darling), playful ( butuz, laugh), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the called concepts ( small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).

b) Colloquial and everyday vocabulary- words used in everyday everyday life (sometimes with a touch of familiarity) communication: gasp, joke around, cry, reveler, waddle, fidgety, snapped up, sucker etc.

2. Non-literary colloquial vocabulary. It includes vernacular, words that are on the verge or outside the literary sphere of the language, violating strict literary norms. Vernacular- This is mainly the everyday speech of the uneducated strata of urban dwellers. The specificity of this social variant of the language is most clearly manifested in the vocabulary.

a) Words of coarse everyday life vernacular, containing a positive assessment of the called concept ( hard worker, brainy, funky), and words expressing the speaker's negative attitude to the concepts they denote ( go crazy, flimsy, dumb, dad, chatterbox, blurt out, flimsy). The line between these words and colloquial words is very thin and sometimes almost imperceptible.

b) Words of coarse vernacular or vulgarism. These are words that are unacceptable in the spheres of literary speech, violating the norms of literary word use, sometimes abusive: sure, stingy, stupid, shpyat, nonsense, pentyuh, belly, snout, mug, mug, trash, eat, shame, crack, burst, bitch, bastard and so on . The use of these words in works of art always subordinated to certain expressive tasks facing the writer. In this case, they turn out to be a very striking stylistic means of the language, since, in addition to the functional and stylistic characteristics, they have a significant emotional and evaluative coloring.

c) Words are incorrect, abnormal from the point of view of the literary language... These are, as a rule, single-root phonetic, morphological and derivational non-normative variants of words of the literary language: eagerly(sharp), to click(cry), kid(baby), theirs(their), here(on), stretch(a meeting), ailment(illness). Such words are sometimes referred to as semi-dialectal.

Many words not only define concepts, but also express the speaker's attitude towards them, a special kind of evaluativeness. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily. These words are emotionally charged: a positive assessment distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral definition of white. The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the so-called understood: blond, whitish. Therefore, emotional vocabulary is also called evaluative (emotionally evaluative). At the same time, it should be noted that the concepts of emotionality and evaluativeness are not identical, although they are closely related. Some emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain an assessment; but there are words in which the assessment is the essence of their semantic structure, but they do not relate to emotional vocabulary: good, bad, joy, anger, love, suffer.

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on lexical meaning words, but not reduced to it: the denotative meaning of the word is complicated by the connotative one. The emotional vocabulary can be divided into three groups.

Words with a vivid connotative meaning, containing an assessment of facts, phenomena, signs that give an unambiguous characteristic of people: inspire, delightful, daring, unsurpassed, pioneer, predestinate, herald, self-sacrifice, irresponsible, grumpy, double-dealing, bargaining, antediluvian, dishonest, defamation , sycophant, windbag, slob. Such words, as a rule, are unambiguous, expressive emotionality prevents the development of figurative meanings in them.

Polysemous words, neutral in their basic meaning, receiving a qualitatively emotional connotation when used figuratively. So, about a person of a certain character, one can say: a hat, a rag, a mattress, an oak, an elephant, a bear, a snake, an eagle, a crow, a rooster, a parrot; verbs are also used in a figurative sense: saw, hiss, sing, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc.

Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feelings: son, daughter, granny, sun, neatly, close by - positive emotions; beard, fellow, bureaucratic - negative. Their evaluative values ​​are due not to nominative properties, but to word formation, since affixes give emotional coloring to such forms.

Emotionality of speech is often conveyed by especially expressive expressive vocabulary. Expressiveness (expression) (lat. Expressio) means expressiveness, the power of manifestation of feelings and experiences. There are many words in the Russian language that have an element of expression added to their nominative meaning. For example, instead of the word good, when we are delighted with something, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; one might say I don’t like, but it’s not hard to find stronger, more colorful words I hate, despise, and disgust. In all these cases, the semantic structure of the word is complicated by connotation. Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress; Wed: misfortune - grief, disaster, catastrophe; violent - unrestrained, indomitable, frantic, furious. Vivid expression highlights solemn words (herald, accomplishments, unforgettable), rhetorical (companion, aspirations, proclaim), poetic (azure, invisible, silent, chant). The words are expressively colored and humorous words (faithful, newly minted), ironic (deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar (not bad, cute, knock around, whisper) Expressive shades delimit disapproving words (mannered, pretentious, disdainful, pedant), little contemptuous ), contemptuous (sounding, toady), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar (grabber, lucky), abusive (boor, fool). All these nuances of expressive coloring of words are reflected in stylistic notes to them in explanatory dictionaries.

Expression of a word is often overlaid on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotionality. Therefore, it is often not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive coloring, and then they talk about emotional-expressive vocabulary (expressive-evaluative). Words that are similar in terms of expressiveness are classified into: 1) vocabulary expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, and 2) vocabulary expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, contemptuous, vulgar.

The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. So, such words as fascism, Stalinism, repression received a sharply negative assessment in our country. A positive assessment stuck behind the words progressive, peaceful, anti-war. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloration. The development of expressive shades in the semantics of a word is also facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as metaphors receive vivid expression: to burn at work, to fall from fatigue, to suffocate in the conditions of totalitarianism, a burning gaze, a blue dream, a flying gait, etc. stylistically, a few can become emotionally colored, tall - contemptuous, affectionate - ironic, and even a swear word (scoundrel, fool) can sound approvingly.

Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker's attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily. These adjectives are emotionally charged: the positive assessment they contain distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept (blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotionally evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment is their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not refer to emotional vocabulary (bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker's attitude to the named phenomenon.

In the composition of emotional vocabulary, the following three types can be distinguished. 1. Words with a vivid evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; "The assessment in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings." These include the words “characteristics” (forerunner, herald, grouch, idle talker, toady, sloven, etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action (purpose, predestination, dealings, eyewash, wondrous, miraculous , irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, defile). 2. Polysemous words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: a hat, a rag, a mattress, an oak, an elephant, a bear, a snake, an eagle, a crow; in a figurative sense, the verbs are used: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, and so on. 3. Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: those containing positive emotions - son, sun, granny, neatly, close by, and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucratic, etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated values ​​in such cases are due not to the nominative properties of the word, but to word formation.

The depiction of feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness (from Latin expressio - expression) means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; one might say I don’t like, but you can find stronger words: I hate, despise, disgust. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms, differing in the degree of emotional stress (compare: unhappiness - grief - disaster - disaster, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - violent - furious). Vivid expression highlights words solemn (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, proclaim), poetic (azure, invisible, chant, unrepentant). A special expression distinguishes words playful (faithful, newly minted), ironic (grace, grace, don Juan) vaunted), familiar (not bad, cute, knock around, whisper). Expressive shades distinguish between words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive (to paint, petty-mindedness), contemptuous (to scoff, groveling, sycophant), derogatory (petticoat, squishy), vulgar (grabbing, fortunate), ).

Expressive coloration in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and some words are dominated by expression, others - emotional coloration. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet." This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.

By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotional-expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:

The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, hired killer, mafia received a sharply negative assessment in our country. Behind the words progressive, law and order, statehood, glasnost, etc. a positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn (Wait, prince. Finally, I hear not a boy, but a husband's speech. - P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic connotation (G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor. - P.).

The development of emotional and expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as paths get vivid expression: to burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (in adverse conditions), flaming (gaze), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mocking and ironic connotation; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuous. The appearance of a word, depending on the context, of additional expressive shades significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary

The expressive coloring of words in works of fiction differs from the expression of the same words in non-descriptive speech. In an artistic context, vocabulary receives additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive color. Modern science attaches great importance to the expansion of the semantic volume of words in artistic speech, linking with this the appearance of a new expressive color in words.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary draws us to the selection of different types of speech, depending on the nature of the speaker's impact on the listeners, the situation of their communication, attitude to each other and a number of other factors. " It is enough to imagine, - wrote A.N. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to laugh or touch, to cause the listeners' disposition or their negative attitude to the subject of speech, so that it becomes clear how different linguistic means will be selected, mainly creating different expressive colors. " With this approach to the selection of linguistic means, several types of speech can be outlined: solemn (rhetorical), official (cold), intimate-affectionate, playful. They are opposed by neutral speech, using linguistic means, devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

The study of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using various emotional and expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, "the methods of selection of speech means ... are not universal, they are of a private nature." For example, a publicistic speech can receive a solemn coloring; “Rhetorical, expressively rich and impressive can be this or that performance in the sphere of everyday communication (commemorative speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of a particular ritual, etc.)”.

At the same time, it should be noted that there is insufficient study of expressive types of speech, the lack of clarity in their classification. In this regard, the determination of the ratio of the functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary also causes certain difficulties. Let's dwell on this issue.

Emotionally expressive coloring of the word, layering on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Words that are neutral in an emotionally expressive relation usually refer to common vocabulary (although this is not necessary: ​​terms, for example, in an emotionally expressive relation, as a rule, are neutral, but have a clear functional fixation). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between bookish, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.

The book vocabulary includes high words that give a speech solemnity, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both a positive and a negative assessment of the named concepts. In book styles, vocabulary is ironic (good-heartedness, words, quixotism), disapproving (pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous (disguise, corrupt).

Colloquial vocabulary includes words that are affectionate (little daughter, darling), playful (butuz, laugh), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts (small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).

In common parlance, words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words containing a positive assessment of the called concept (hard worker, brainy, funky), and words expressing the speaker's negative attitude to the concepts they designate (crazy, flimsy, dumb).

Functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades can intersect in the word. For example, the words satellite, epigone, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time, the word satellite, used in a figurative sense, we associate with the journalistic style, in the word epigone we note a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis - a positive one. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin. Such affectionate and ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, zaletka, drolya combine colloquial and dialectal coloring, folk poetic sound. The richness of stylistic nuances of the Russian vocabulary requires a particularly attentive attitude to the word.

Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker's attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily... These adjectives are emotionally colored: the positive assessment they contain distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral word. White... The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept ( blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotionally evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment is their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary ( bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker's attitude to the named phenomenon.

In the composition of emotional vocabulary, the following three types can be distinguished. 1. Words with a vivid evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; "The assessment in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings." These include the words "characteristics" ( forerunner, herald, grouch, chatterbox, sycophant, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action ( purpose, predestination, fiddling, deceit, wondrous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, defile). 2. Polysemous words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; verbs are used figuratively: sing, hiss, nag, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under. 3. Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: concluding positive emotions - son, sunshine, granny, neatly, close, and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucratic etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated values ​​in such cases are due not to the nominative properties of the word, but to word formation.

The depiction of feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good We are speaking wonderful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; you can say I do not like, but stronger words can be found: hate, despise, disgust... In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms, differing in the degree of emotional stress (cf .: misfortune - grief - disaster - disaster, violent - unbridled - indomitable - violent - furious). Bright expression highlights the words solemn ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical ( sacred, aspirations, proclaim), poetic ( azure, invisible, chant, unremitting). A special expression distinguishes the words playful ( faithful, newly minted), ironic ( deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar ( not bad, cute, knock around, whisper). Expressive shades delimit disapproving words ( pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive ( daunting, triviality), contemptuous ( to flap, groveling, toady), derogatory ( skirt, squishy), vulgar ( grabber, lucky), abusive ( boor, fool).

Expressive coloration in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and some words are dominated by expression, others - emotional coloration. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet." This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.

By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotional-expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:

The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Words such as fascism, separatism, corruption, contract killer, mafia... Behind the words progressive, rule of law, statehood, glasnost etc. a positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloration: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn ( Wait, prince. Finally, I do not hear the boy speak, but the husband.- P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic connotation ( G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor.- NS.).

The development of emotional and expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as tropes get vivid expression: burn(at work), fall(from fatigue) suffocate(in unfavorable conditions), blazing(look), blue(dream), flying(gait) etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mocking and ironic connotation; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuous. The appearance of a word, depending on the context, of additional expressive shades significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary

The expressive coloring of words in works of fiction differs from the expression of the same words in non-descriptive speech. In an artistic context, vocabulary receives additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive color. Modern science attaches great importance to the expansion of the semantic volume of words in artistic speech, linking with this the appearance of a new expressive color in words.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary draws us to the allocation of various types of speech, depending on the nature of the speaker's impact on the listeners, the situation of their communication, attitude to each other and a number of other factors. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to laugh or touch, to cause the listeners' disposition or their negative attitude to the subject of speech, so that it becomes clear how different linguistic means will be selected, mainly creating different expressive colors. " With this approach to the selection of language means, several types of speech can be identified: solemn(rhetorical), official(cold) intimate affectionate, playful... They are opposed by speech neutral using linguistic means devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

The study of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using various emotional and expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, "the methods of selection of speech means ... are not universal, they are of a private nature." For example, a publicistic speech can receive a solemn coloring; “Rhetorical, expressively rich and impressive can be this or that performance in the sphere of everyday communication (commemorative speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of a particular ritual, etc.)”.

At the same time, it should be noted that there is insufficient study of expressive types of speech, the lack of clarity in their classification. In this regard, the determination of the ratio of the functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary also causes certain difficulties. Let's dwell on this issue.

Emotionally expressive coloring of the word, layering on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Words that are neutral in an emotionally expressive relation usually refer to common vocabulary (although this is not necessary: ​​terms, for example, in an emotionally expressive relation, as a rule, are neutral, but have a clear functional fixation). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between bookish, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.

TO book vocabulary includes high words that give speech solemnity, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both a positive and a negative assessment of the named concepts. In book styles, ironic vocabulary is used ( good-heartedness, words, quixotic), disapproving ( pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous ( disguise, corrupt).

TO colloquial vocabulary includes words affectionate ( darling, darling), playful ( butuz, laugh), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the called concepts ( small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).

V vernacular words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words containing a positive assessment of the called concept (hard worker, brainy, awesome), and words expressing the speaker's negative attitude to the concepts they designate ( go crazy, flimsy, ugly).

Functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades can intersect in the word. For example, the words satellite, epigone, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time the words satellite, used in a figurative sense, we associate with journalistic style, in the word epigonous we mark a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis- positive. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin. Such tenderly ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, flyer, drolya, combine colloquial and dialectal coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of stylistic nuances of the Russian vocabulary requires a particularly attentive attitude to the word.

The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements, and as a foreign-style means, which stands out for its expression against the background of other linguistic means.

The use of terminological vocabulary, which has the most definite functional and stylistic significance, deserves special attention. Terms- words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time succinct characteristic of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use, the content of the concept, and the characteristics of the designated object. In the most general outline this division is reflected in the delimitation general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole, it is not by chance that the words denoting them are the most frequent in scientific speech) and special, which are assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to Sh. Bally, "are those ideal types of linguistic expression to which scientific language inevitably strives."

Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, therefore the use of terms in a scientific style is a necessary condition for brevity, brevity, and accuracy of presentation.

The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously investigated by modern linguistic science. It was found that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. The genres of scientific works are characterized by a different ratio of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.

Modern society demands from science such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest achievements of the human mind the property of everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world by a language barrier, that its language is “elitist”, “sectarian”. To the vocabulary scientific work was available to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.

Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.

Studying the process of terminology of speech that is not bound by the norms of the scientific style, the researchers point to distinctive features the use of terms in this case. Many words with precise terminological meaning are widespread and are used without any stylistic restrictions ( radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). The other group includes words that have a dual nature: they can be used both in the function of terms and as a stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they differ in special shades of meanings, which give them special accuracy and unambiguity. So the word mountain, meaning in its broad, interstyle usage, "a significant elevation rising above the surrounding terrain," and having a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the delineation of concepts is essential mountain - hill, the clarification is given: the height is more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside of the scientific style is associated with their partial determination.

Special features highlight the terminological vocabulary used in a figurative sense ( virus of indifference, coefficient of sincerity, another round of negotiations). Such a rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, colloquial speech. A similar phenomenon lies in the mainstream of the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by all sorts of stylistic shifts. The peculiarity of such word use is that "there is not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term, but also a stylistic transfer."

The introduction of terms into unscientific texts should be motivated, the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare two versions of the proposals:

The advantage of "non-terminological", clearer and more concise versions in newspaper materials is obvious.

The stylistic coloring of a word indicates the possibility of using it in a particular functional style (in combination with commonly used neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional attachment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, characteristic of the modern development of the Russian language, contributes to the movement of lexical means (along with other linguistic elements) from one of them to another. For example, in scientific works you can find journalistic vocabulary next to terms. As M.N. Kozhin, "the style of scientific speech is characterized by expressiveness not only of a logical, but also of an emotional plan." At the lexical level, this is achieved by using foreign-style vocabulary, including high and low.

The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign-style vocabulary. You can often find terms in it. For example: “Canon 10 replaces five traditional office machines: it works as a computer fax, plain paper fax machine, inkjet printer (360 dpi, scanner and photocopier). you can use software supplied with Canon 10 to send and receive PC-Fax messages directly from your computer screen "(out of gas).

Scientific, terminological vocabulary here can be next to expressively colored colloquial, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of publicistic speech, but contributes to strengthening its effectiveness. For example, a newspaper article describes a scientific experiment: The Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry has thirty-two laboratories. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: "Do not enter: experience!" But from behind the door you can hear the cackling of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here is a researcher picking up a corydalis. Turns upside down ... Such an appeal to foreign-style vocabulary is quite justified, colloquial vocabulary enlivens newspaper speech, making it more accessible to the reader.

Of the book styles, only the official business is impervious to foreign vocabulary. At the same time, one cannot but take into account “the undoubted existence of mixed speech genres, as well as situations where the mixing of stylistically dissimilar elements is almost inevitable. For example, the speech of various participants in the trial is hardly capable of representing any stylistic unity, but it would also hardly be legitimate to attribute the corresponding phrases entirely to colloquial or entirely to official business speech. "

The appeal to emotional-evaluative vocabulary in all cases is due to the peculiarities of the individual author's manner of presentation. Reduced grammar vocabulary may be used in book styles. In it find a source of enhancing the effectiveness of speech and publicists, and scientists, and even criminologists writing for the newspaper. Here is an example of mixing styles in a traffic information note:

Having driven into a ravine, "Ikarus" ran into an old mine

The bus with Dnepropetrovsk "shuttle traders" was returning from Poland. Exhausted by the long journey, the people were asleep. At the entrance to the Dnipropetrovsk region, the driver also dozed off. The Ikarus, which lost control, left the highway and landed in a ravine. The car rolled over the roof and froze. The blow was strong, but everyone survived. (...) It turned out that in the ravine "Ikarus" ran into a heavy mortar mine ... The "rusty death" turned out of the ground rested right on the bottom of the bus. The sappers were waiting for a long time.

(From newspapers)

Colloquial and even colloquial words, as we see, coexist with official business and professional vocabulary.

The author of a scientific work has the right to use emotional vocabulary with vivid expression if he seeks to influence the feelings of the reader ( And freedom, and space, nature, beautiful surroundings of the city, and these fragrant ravines and swaying fields, and pink spring and golden autumn weren't our educators? Call me a barbarian in pedagogy, but I learned from the impressions of my life a deep conviction that a beautiful landscape has such a tremendous educational influence on the development of a young soul, with which it is difficult to compete with the influence of a teacher.- K. D. Ushinsky). High and low words can penetrate even into a formal business style if the topic evokes strong emotions.

So, in a Letter sent from the administrative apparatus of the Security Council to the name of the President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, it says:

According to information received by the apparatus of the Russian Security Council, the situation in the gold mining industry, which forms the country's gold reserves, is approaching critical [...].

... The main reason for the crisis is the inability of the state to pay for the gold already received. […] The paradox and absurdity of the situation is that the budget for the purchase of precious metals and precious stones has been allocated 9.45 trillion rubles for 1996. However, these funds are regularly spent on mending holes in the budget. Gold miners have not been paid for metal since May - since the beginning of the flushing season.

... Only the Ministry of Finance, which manages budgetary funds, can explain these tricks. Debt for gold does not allow miners to continue producing metal, since they are unable to pay off for "fuel", materials, and energy. […] All this not only aggravates the crisis of non-payments and provokes strikes, but also disrupts the flow of taxes to local and federal budgets, destroying the financial fabric of the economy and the normal life of entire regions. The budget and incomes of residents of about a quarter of the territory of Russia - Magadan Oblast, Chukotka, Yakutia - directly depend on gold mining.

In all cases, no matter what stylistically contrasting means are combined in the context, the appeal to them should be deliberate, not accidental.

A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic coloring in speech can only be given in view of a specific text, a specific functional style, since the words necessary in one speech situation are inappropriate in another.

A serious stylistic flaw in speech can be the introduction of journalistic vocabulary into non-publicistic texts. For example: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided: to build a playground, which is of great importance in the education of the younger generation... The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause a comic, illogical statement, since words of high emotional sounding here act as an alien stylistic element (one could write: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).

V scientific style errors arise from the inability of the author to professionally and correctly use terms. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words of similar meaning, descriptive expressions: The hydrant clutch with air operated control by means of the operator's weight-bearing handle has been designed ...(necessary: hydrant clutch with pneumatic control system ...).

Inaccurate reproduction of terms is unacceptable, for example: The driver's movements must be limited by the harness.... Term seat belt is used in aviation, in the same case the term should have been used safety belt... Confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also exposes the author of poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Peristaltism of the heart is noted, followed by stopping in the systole phase- term peristaltism can only characterize the activity of the digestive system (you should have written: Cardiac fibrillation is noted ...).

The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that do not belong to the scientific style requires a deep knowledge of the subject from the author. An amateurish attitude towards special vocabulary, leading not only to stylistic errors, but also to semantic errors, is unacceptable. For example: At the Central German Canal, they were overtaken by furiously rushing cars from a bluish tide with armor-piercing glasses.- may be armor-piercing guns, shells, and glass should be called impenetrable, bulletproof. Severity in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with the meaning is a mandatory requirement for texts of any functional style.

The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are incomprehensible to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article, the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, the Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first multi-force two-cylinder steam-atmosphere machine. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine implemented... The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case, the description of the Polzunov machine is superfluous. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: The first steam engine was created by the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763 D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.

Passion for terms and book vocabulary in non-scientific texts can cause pseudoscientific presentation... For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, also perform a family and household function, which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic... And it could have been simpler: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to the family, raising children, and household.

The pseudoscientific style of presentation often becomes the reason for inappropriate comic speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. So, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary should not be welcomed: The staircase is a specific room for interfloor connections of a preschool institution - it has no analogues in any of its interiors... Wouldn't it have been better to abandon the unjustified use of bookish words by writing: Staircase in preschool institutions connecting the floors has a special interior.

Stylistic errors in book styles can be caused by inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in a formal business style, for example, in meeting minutes: Established effective control over the prudent use of feed on the farm; In the regional center and villages, the administration has done a certain amount of work, and yet there is a lot of work in the area of ​​improvement.... These phrases can be corrected like this: ... Strictly control the consumption of feed on the farm; The administration has begun to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued..

In the scientific style, the use of foreign-style vocabulary is also not motivated. When stylistic editing of scientific texts, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary is successively replaced by interstyle or book vocabulary.

The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of publicistic speech. The modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. Many magazines and newspapers are dominated by a reduced style, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary. Here are examples from articles on various topics.

As soon as the wind of change breathed, this praise of the intelligentsia dissipated into commerce, parties and governments. Pulling up her pants, she threw away her disinterestedness and her forehead Panurgs.

... And now 1992 ... Philosophers poured out of the ground like russula. Quiet, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight ... They seem to be good guys, but infected with the eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias ... (Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - P. 3).

Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the classroom or in the yard came to the Miss Russia competition seven years ago. ... This is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and the Americas (Lyudmila Volkova // MK).

The Moscow government will have to fork out. One of his latest acquisitions - a controlling stake in AMO - ZiL - needs to unfasten 51 billion rubles in September to complete the program of in-line production of the ZiL-5301 low-tonnage vehicle (Let's take a ride or take a ride // MK).

The fascination of journalists with vernacular, expressive reduced vocabulary in such cases is often stylistically not justified. Permissiveness in speech reflects the low culture of the authors. The editor should not be led by reporters who do not accept stylistic norms.

Stylistic editing of such texts requires the elimination of abbreviated words, processing of sentences. For example:

1. So far, only two cool Russian goods - vodka and a Kalashnikov machine - are out of competition on the world market.	1. On the world market, only two Russian goods are in constant demand - vodka and a Kalashnikov machine. They are out of competition.
2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but for the information asked for a tidy sum in dollars, which was a tragic surprise for the correspondent.	2. The head of the laboratory agreed to be interviewed, but demanded a fantastic sum in dollars for the information, which the correspondent did not expect.
3. The City Duma coordinator on housing policy assured that the privatization of rooms in communal apartments will most likely be allowed in Moscow.	3. The City Duma's housing policy coordinator said the privatization of rooms in communal apartments is likely to be allowed in Moscow.

A characteristic feature of modern journalistic texts is a stylistically unjustified combination of book and colloquial vocabulary. A confusion of styles is often found even in articles by serious authors on political and economic topics. For example: It's no secret that our government is head over heels in debt and, apparently, will decide on a desperate step by launching a printing press. However, experts from the Central Bank believe that a collapse is not expected. Unsecured money is still being issued, so if the bills are drawn, it is unlikely to lead to a collapse of the financial market in the near future.("MK").

Out of respect for the author, the editor does not edit the text, trying to convey to the reader its originality individual style... However, mixing different styles of vocabulary can give speech an ironic connotation, unjustified in the context, and sometimes inappropriate comic. For example: 1. The management of a commercial enterprise immediately seized on a valuable offer and agreed to an experiment, chasing profits; 2. The representatives of the investigating authorities took a photojournalist with them to arm themselves with irrefutable facts. The editor should correct such stylistic errors by using synonymous substitutions for diminished words. In the first example, you can write: Business executives were interested in the valuable proposal and agreed to an experiment, hoping for a good profit.; in the second, it is enough to replace the verb: not grabbed, a took with them.

Errors in the use of stylistically colored vocabulary should not be confused, however, with a deliberate mixing of styles, in which writers and publicists find a life-giving source of humor and irony. The parodic clash of colloquial and official-business vocabulary is a proven technique for creating a comic sounding speech in feuilletons. For example: " Dear Lyubanya! Spring is already coming soon, and in the park where we met, the leaves will turn green. And I love you as before, even more. When, finally, is our wedding, when will we be together? Write, I'm looking forward to it. Your Vasya». « Dear Vasily! Indeed, the territory of the park where we met will soon turn green. After that, you can begin to resolve the issue of marriage, since spring is the time of year for love. L. Buravkina».

2. Comparative characteristics of subordinate clauses and separate participial constructions. Typical mistakes when using participial phrases.

Parallel syntactic constructions Participatory phrases In modern literary language do not use forms on -shy from verbs of the perfect form (with the meaning of the future tense), for example: "who wants to compose", "trying to assure", "who is able to explain." Also participles are not used in combination with a particle. would, since the participles are not formed from subjunctive verbs, for example: "a project that would raise objections", "employees who would like to work overtime." Occasionally, however, such forms were found among writers, for example: The mind is asleep, perhaps having found a sudden spring of great means(Gogol); It is worth going to any of the countless churches in Venice, ask the minister to light the light, and the magnificent colors of the canvases will emerge from the darkness, which would be the pride of any art gallery(N. Prozhogin). A separate participial turnover has a greater semantic load compared to the same turnover in the case of its non-separation. Wed: Written in small handwriting, the manuscript was difficult to read(a common definition, expressed as a separate participial phrase, contains an additional causal meaning). - The manuscript, written in small handwriting, was read with great difficulty.(a non-isolated participial turnover has only a definitive meaning). The non-isolated participial turnover is closer to the noun being defined. Wed: face covered with large wrinkles(stable feature) - face covered in large beads of sweat(a temporary sign; the lexical composition of both constructions also plays a role). To the participle, as a verb form, attach the meanings of time, type, voice. 1) The meaning of the time in the participle is relative: in some cases, there is a correlation between the times expressed by the participle and the predicate verb, for example: saw kids playing on the boulevard(seen while they were playing); in other cases, the time expressed by the participle correlates with the moment of speech, precedes it, for example: saw children playing on the boulevard... Wed: In one of the rooms, I found a young guy sorting papers at the table(Soloukhin); That night, as if on purpose, the empty sheds belonging to the tax farmers caught fire(Herzen). With the past tense of the predicate verb, the present participle indicates a permanent sign, the past participle indicates a temporary sign. For example: We were interested in a house at the edge of the forest.(cf. ... which is worth ...). – Artyom grabbed a heavy hammer standing at the anvil ...(N. Ostrovsky) (cf .: ... which stood ...). Wed also: All delegates arrived at the meeting, with the exception of two who were absent due to illness(the meeting is still in progress). - All delegates attended the meeting, with the exception of two who were absent due to illness.(the meeting has already ended). An imprecise form of the participle time is used in the sentence: “The work was completed within five days instead of the alleged six "(the assumption refers to the past, so the form of the present participle is not suitable the alleged; also the form does not fit the proposed which has the meaning of the perfect form, while the meaning of the phrase requires an imperfect participle - from the verb suppose, not from guess; the correct form for the given case is the anticipated). On the contrary, you need the form of the present, not the past tense of the participle in the sentence: “ Existing until now, the situation in the field of using electric locomotives does not meet the already increased requirements of transport "(if it does not, then it means that it still exists, so it should have been said: The situation still existing ...). 2) The meaning of the log is taken into account in the forms of participles on -sya; in them, a mixture of return and passive meanings is possible (see § 173, item 4). In such cases, where possible, the forms should be replaced by -sya others (usually in the form of th). For example, instead of "a girl raised by a grandmother," you should say: girl raised by grandmother; instead of "work done by students" - work performed by students... Depending on the meaning, different harmonization of the participles is possible. Wed: Some of the books intended for the exhibition have already been received(received in all books intended for the exhibition). - Some of the books intended for the exhibition have already been received(not all books intended for the exhibition have been received). Such variants of agreement are found in cases where the participial phrase is determined not by a single word, but by a phrase. Wed also: The amount of electricity consumed ...(the quantitative side is emphasized) - The amount of electricity consumed ...(the object, of which part is in question, is characterized); Two thousand rubles borrowed. – Ten thousand rubles taken from my sister(L. Tolstoy). In some cases, participial phrases, like subordinate qualifying clauses (see § 210, paragraph 4), allow a double correlation, which gives rise to the ambiguity of the sentence, for example: "Statement by the chairman of the committee dealing with these issues" (is the chairman or the committee engaged?) ... Possible editing options: Statement by the Chairperson of the Committee dealing with these issues - ... dealing with these issues... The participle can be found either after the defined word ( letter received from the author), or before it ( letter received from the author), but should not include the word being defined (“letter received from the author”). Most often, the participle turnover is found after the defined word. The participles are usually accompanied by explanatory words necessary for the completeness of the statement. So, stylistically unsuccessful combinations: "entered citizens are asked to pay the fare" (cf .: citizens who entered the bus ...); “Received manuscripts have been sent for reviewing” (cf .: manuscripts received by the editors ...). Explanatory words can be omitted if their absence is justified by the conditions of the context, the meaning of the sentence itself, the situation of the statement, etc., for example: The work in question has a number of positive aspects; All the proposals made deserve attention; The planned plans were fulfilled ahead of schedule(these plans were discussed earlier). Participle expressions are used to replace synonymous relative clauses: 1) if the statement has a bookish character, for example: Numerous facts accumulated by science have confirmed the correctness of the hypothesis put forward by the young scientist; Our boats, drawn by the current, sailed in the middle of the river(Arseniev); 2) if in complex sentence the union word is repeated which the, in particular, with the consistent subordination of subordinate clauses (see § 210, paragraph 3, subparagraph "e"), for example: "At a scientific and methodological conference, which was devoted to the teaching of foreign languages, a number of messages were made, which contained interesting data on the application of the programmed learning system "(each of the subordinate clauses or both of them can be replaced by participial phrases); 3) if you need to eliminate the ambiguity associated with the possible different correlation of the union word which the(see § 210, paragraph 4), for example: “Words are in bold type in sentences that are used for parsing” (or used by, or used by, depending on what is used for parsing); 4) if the statement is given a brevity justified by stylistic considerations. For example: “The wagon train stood on a large bridge, stretching across a wide river. Smoke darkened below the river, through which a steamer could be seen, dragging a barge in tow. Ahead, a huge mountain glittered across the river, dotted with houses and churches ... ”(Chekhov). Using the advantages of the participle, one should at the same time take into account such a significant disadvantage of the participles as their dissonance in the case of the accumulation of forms on -shy and -was(see § 142). § 212. Adverbial expressions An action denoted by an adverbial (adverbial adverb), as a rule, refers to the subject of this sentence, for example: Summing up the results of the debate, the chairman of the meeting noted the commonality of views of the speaker and the participants of the meeting... If the producer of the action expressed by the predicate verb and the producer of the action expressed by the verb do not coincide, the use of the verb participle is stylistically erroneous, for example: “Passing over the rails, the switchman was deafened by the unexpected whistle of a steam locomotive” ( going over refers to the switchman, and deafened- to the whistle). In a number of cases, it is possible to use an adverbial turnover that does not express the action of the subject: 1) if the producer of the action indicated by the adverbial coincides with the producer of the action indicated by another verb form, for example: The author was invited to make additions to the manuscript, taking into account the latest advances in science in this area; Nothing could hold back the pressure of the waves rushing onto the shore, sweeping away everything in its path; 2) in an impersonal sentence with an infinitive, for example: I had to work in difficult conditions, not having a single free day for rest for many weeks... If in the impersonal sentence there is no infinitive to which the adverbial turnover could refer, then the use of the latter is stylistically unjustified, for example: “Leaving hometown, I felt sad ”; “After reading the manuscript for the second time, the editor felt that it needed serious revision”; 3) in circulation with words based forming a special construct without the value of the additional action, for example: The calculation is based on average production rates... The use of the adverbial turnover in the passive construction does not correspond to the norm, since the producer of the action expressed by the predicate verb and the producer of the action expressed by the verb do not coincide, for example: "Having received the recognition of the wide readership, the book was republished." The adverbial turnover usually precedes the predicate if it means: a) a previous action, for example: Pushing me away, grandmother rushed to the door ...(Bitter); b) the reason for another action, for example: Frightened by the unknown noise, the flock rose heavily above the water(Perventsev); c) the condition of another action, for example: Straining his strength, a person of the most average ability can achieve anything.(V. Panova). The adverbial turnover usually follows the predicate if it means: a) a subsequent action, for example: Once in the forest, I fell into a deep hole, ripping my side with a knot and tearing the skin on the back of my head(Bitter); b) the course of action, for example: Here, near the carts, wet horses stood, their heads bowed, and people walked, covered with rain bags(Chekhov). Adverbial expressions are synonymous with subordinate clauses. When choosing the desired option, its grammatical and stylistic features are taken into account. The adverbial turnover gives the statement a bookish character. The advantage of this construction in comparison with the clause clause is its conciseness. Wed: As you read this manuscript, pay attention to the underlined passages.. – As you read this manuscript, pay attention to the underlined passages.... On the other hand, the advantage of subordinate clauses is the presence of conjunctions in them, which give the statement different shades of meaning, which are lost when the subordinate clause is replaced with an adverbial turnover. Wed: when he entered ... after he entered ... as soon as he entered ... as soon as he entered ... etc. and a synonymous variant entering, indicating only the previous action, but devoid of subtle shades of temporal meaning. When using the adverbial turnover in such cases, the loss of the union should be compensated for, where necessary, by lexical means, for example: entering ... he immediately (immediately, immediately etc.). Adverbial expressions can be synonymous with other constructions. Wed: walked wrapped in a warm fur coat - walked wrapped in a warm fur coat; he looked with his head held high - he looked with his head held high; hurrying, anticipating something unkind - hurrying in anticipation of something unkind; read the manuscript, making extracts - read the manuscript and made extracts... § 213. Constructions with verbal nouns Or verbal nouns are widely used in different styles language: a) in science and technology as terms formed: using a suffix -ni-e (-ani-e, -ni-e), for example: concreting, loosening; representation, sensation; subtraction, addition; coordination, management; using the suffix -k-a, for example: masonry, putty(process and result of the process); in the presence of options of both types ( marking - marking, pressing - pressing, milling - milling, grinding - grinding) the first option has a more bookish character; in a non-suffix way, for example: departure, bench press, roasting, measurement, reset; if there are options ( heating - heating, burning - burning, draining - draining) behind the forms on -nie a greater degree of bookishness is preserved; b) in an official business speech, for example: Nomination of candidates has begun; The negotiations ended with the establishment of diplomatic relations; Reached the extension of the agreement for the next five years; Leave request granted... c) in headers, for example: Space rocket launch; Screening of new films; Presentation of orders and awards; Homecoming... The undoubted advantage of constructions with verbal nouns is their brevity. Wed: When spring came, field work began. – With the onset of spring, field work began; If the first symptoms of the disease appear, see your doctor.. – At the appearance of the first symptoms of the disease, consult a doctor... However, constructions with verbal nouns have a number of shortcomings: collateral. For example: “The speaker talked about the implementation of the plan” (it is unclear whether it is about the fact that the plan has been completed, or about the progress of its implementation, or about the need to implement it, etc.); b) and skewed images created by certain model, but not accepted in the literary language, for example: "due to lack of the necessary details", "theft of state property", "undressing and undressing children." The use of such words can only be justified by a stylistic task, for example: The killing was due to drowning(Chekhov); c) the analysis of the steps (see § 204, item 1). It is often caused by the use of verbal nouns, for example: "In order to improve the organization of training for young programmers ..."; d) the development of the case (see § 177, item 2). Usually associated with the use of verbal nouns, for example: "Seal the warehouse", "There is an understatement of requirements"; e) k and c e l i r s k and y harakter utterances. It is often due to the presence of verbal nouns in it, for example: “In the new novel, the author gives a broad demonstration of the formation of unusual relations”; "Critics noted the director's failure to use all the possibilities of color cinema." If, in connection with the development of terminology in scientific, technical, professional, publicistic speech, many expressions with verbal nouns have already acquired the rights of citizenship (cf. the plane is descending, the boat is turning, the garden has begun to bear fruit, the letters are removed five times a day and others), then using them in other styles of speech makes a negative impression. The stylistic editing of the structures under consideration is achieved by various kinds of substitutions. For this purpose it is used: a) subordinate clause, for example: “We were unable to leave on time due to non-receipt of the necessary documents” - ... because we didn’t receive the necessary documents; b) turnover with the union to, for example: "The manuscript has been corrected to eliminate repetitions and improve its style" - ... to eliminate repetition and improve her style; c) adverbial turnover, for example: "It is necessary to deepen the knowledge and consolidate the skills of students by attracting additional material" - ... attracting additional material.

3. Stylistic analysis of the text.

Many words not only define concepts, but also express the speaker's attitude towards them, a special kind of evaluativeness. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily... These words are emotionally charged: a positive assessment distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral definition of white. The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept: blond, whitish... Therefore, emotional vocabulary is also called evaluative ( emotionally evaluative).

At the same time, it should be noted that the concepts of emotionality and evaluativeness are not identical, although they are closely related. Some emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain an assessment; but there are words in which the assessment is the essence of their semantic structure, but they do not relate to emotional vocabulary: good, bad, joy, anger, love, suffer.

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it: the denotative meaning of the word is complicated by the connotative one.

The emotional vocabulary can be divided into three groups.

Words with a vivid connotative meaning containing an assessment of facts, phenomena, signs, giving an unambiguous characteristic of people: inspire, delightful, daring, consummate, trailblazer, predestinate, herald, self-sacrifice, irresponsible, grouch, double-dealing, bargaining, antediluvian, defile, defame, eyewash, sneak, windbag, slob... Such words, as a rule, are unambiguous, expressive emotionality prevents the development of figurative meanings in them.

Ambiguous words, neutral in the basic sense, receiving a qualitative and emotional connotation when used figuratively. So, about a person of a certain character, you can say: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow, rooster, parrot; verbs are also used figuratively: saw, hiss, sing, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and etc.

Words with subjective suffixes that convey different shades of feelings: son, daughter, granny, sunshine, neatly, close- positive emotions; beard, fellow, bureaucratic- negative. Their evaluative values ​​are due not to nominative properties, but to word formation, since affixes give emotional coloring to such forms.

Emotionality of speech is often transmitted especially expressive expressive vocabulary. Expressiveness(expression) (lat. expressio) - means expressiveness, the power of manifestation of feelings and experiences. There are many words in the Russian language that have an element of expression added to their nominative meaning. For example, instead of the word good, when we are delighted with something, we say wonderful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; I can say I don’t like it, but it’s not hard to find stronger, colorful words hate, despise, disgust... In all these cases, the semantic structure of the word is complicated by connotation.

Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress; Wed: misfortune - grief, disaster, catastrophe; violent - unrestrained, indomitable, frantic, furious... Bright expression highlights the words solemn ( herald, accomplishments, unforgettable), rhetorical ( ally, aspirations, herald), poetic ( azure, invisible, silent, chant). Expressively colored and the words are playful ( faithful, newly minted), ironic ( deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar ( not bad, cute, knock around, whisper) Expressive shades delimit disapproving words ( campy, pretentious, ambitious, pedant), dismissive ( daunting, triviality), contemptuous ( make a noise, sneak), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar ( grabber, lucky), abusive (boor, fool). All these nuances of expressive coloring of words are reflected in stylistic notes to them in explanatory dictionaries.

Expression of a word is often overlaid on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotionality. Therefore, it is often not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive coloring, and then they talk about emotionally expressive vocabulary (expressive-evaluative).

Words that are similar in terms of expressiveness are classified into: 1) vocabulary expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, and 2) vocabulary expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, contemptuous, vulgar, etc.

The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. So, we have received a sharply negative assessment of such words as fascism, Stalinism, repression... A positive assessment stuck to the words progressive, peaceful, anti-war... Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one sense, the word appears as solemn, high: Wait, prince. Finally, it’s not a boy’s speech that I hear, buthusband(P.), in another - as ironic, mocking: B. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the glory of a scientisthusband(NS.).

The development of expressive shades in the semantics of a word is also facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as metaphors get vivid expression: burn at work, fall from fatigue, blazing gaze, blue dream, flying gait, etc. The context finally demonstrates the expressive coloring of words: in it, stylistically neutral units can become emotionally colored, tall ones - contemptuous, affectionate - ironic, and even a swear word (scoundrel, fool) can sound approvingly.