House construction ancient Egyptian painting. What is painting in Ancient Egypt? Let's find out. Music and musical instruments

The art of ancient Egypt was the most perfect and advanced among the arts. different nations Of the Ancient East. The Egyptian people were the first to create monumental stone architecture, a realistic sculptural portrait, and wonderful products of artistic handicrafts. Among the many achievements, the main thing was the image of a person with incomparable more realistic concreteness than before. For the first time, Egyptian art began to depict a person in connection and comparison with other people, opened and confirmed an interest in individuality. From the very beginning of the formation of class relations, art has become a powerful means of influencing the consciousness of the masses in order to strengthen and exalt the power of the pharaoh and the slave-owning elite of society.

The Greeks and Romans drew attention to one of the most characteristic features Egyptian art: long-term adherence to the patterns accepted in antiquity, tk. religion ascribed sacred meaning to the artistic samples of antiquity. Because of this, in the art of slave-owning Egypt, a number of conventions, dating back to the pre-class society and enshrined as canonical, have been preserved. For example, the image of objects that are actually invisible, but present; such as fish, hippos, crocodiles under water; depicting an object using a schematic listing of its parts; combination of different points of view in one image. Also, a number of artistic principles that arose and developed already in the early class society of Egypt, in turn, became canonical for subsequent periods. Compliance with the canons also led to the technical features of the work of Egyptian craftsmen, who early used a grid to accurately transfer the desired sample to the wall. It is also known that in the Old Kingdom, a standing human figure was divided into 6 cells, in the Middle and New - by 8, in Saissian time - by 26, and a certain number of cells were allocated to each part of the body. Also, canonical patterns existed for figures of animals, birds, etc. Despite the positive aspects, the canons fettered the development of art, and later played only a hindering conservative role, hindering the development of realistic trends.

Addition of Ancient Egyptian Art

(4 thousand BC)

The monuments give a comparatively integral idea of ​​the ancient Egyptian society from the 5th millennium BC. They talk about the primitive communal character of a society based on primitive agriculture and cattle breeding. The fertility of the soil formed from alluvial silt provided food for a large number of people, despite the primitiveness of the tools. In individual communities, agriculture based on irrigation began to appear. The labor of slaves, at first still few in number, was used. The development of inequality of property within the community led to embryonic forms of state power. Constant internecine wars over lands, canals and slaves ended only in the middle of the 4th B.C. the formation of two large state associations - northern and southern. Around 3200BC. the south defeated the north, which meant the formation of a unified Egyptian state.

The most ancient human dwellings in the Nile Valley were pits and caves; from skins and braids stretched on poles, they made sheds and tents. Gradually, reed huts, plastered with clay, appeared. Further, for the construction of housing, they began to use raw bricks. In front of the dwelling, a courtyard was arranged, surrounded by a fence, and later by a wall. The oldest type of dwelling - the pit - served as a model for burials, which were oval in shape and were lined with mats.

The lack of knowledge about the true connection of phenomena gave a fantastic character to the ideas about the world, the rituals and beliefs that had developed already in this period determined the nature of the art products that were in the most ancient tombs. The earliest of these are earthen vessels, painted with simple white patterns on a red clay background. Both form and execution gradually changed. Memorial and agricultural rites were depicted, and the main role played by female figures, which is associated with the leading role of women in the period of matriarchy. Rough schematic figurines are made. An example of paintings of that time is the painting from the tomb of the leader in Hierakonpolis. In such images, the artist did not draw objects from nature, but conditionally reproduced the most important features. The central role of the Priestess or Goddess was expressed in greater proportions compared to other sizes.

Gradually, the art changes and the images become clearer. Examples of the new stage are the relief images of the battles between the communities, which led to the formation of large associations in the south and north. The leaders stand out especially in the relief: they are depicted in the form of a bull or a lion, striking enemies. With the addition of a new social system, art becomes an ideological weapon. A striking example is the slab of Pharaoh Narmer (64 cm). The scenes are depicted with belts, so in the future all wall paintings and reliefs will be solved. In the further art of slave-owning Egypt, deviation from the canons was most often applied to the depiction of people of the lower classes.

Ancient Kingdom Art

(3200 - 2400 BC)

Egypt of the Ancient Kingdom was the first slave state where, along with the exploitation of slaves, there was the exploitation of the free agricultural population. Pharaoh was at the head of the state, but there was a constant struggle between the nomes (regions), between the nobility and the pharaoh. Also, the period of the Old Kingdom is the period of the addition of all the main forms of forms of Egyptian culture.

From early times, the leading position in Egyptian art was occupied by architecture, the main monumental structures: tombs, kings and nobles. For their construction, stone was used, while the dwellings"Alive" were built of brick and wood. According to ancient ideas, the deceased also needs a home and food as if he were alive. From these convictions was born the desire to preserve the body of the deceased, or at least his head; complex techniques of mummification were gradually developed. Also, statues of the dead were placed in the tomb to replace them in case of damage to the body. It was believed that the soul could enter it and revive it, thereby ensuring the posthumous life of a person. Tombs of the nobility -"Mastaba" - consisted of an underground part, where a coffin with a mummy was kept, and a massive above-ground structure, which originally looked like a house with two false doors and a courtyard where sacrifices were made. The house was a brick-faced mound of sand and debris. Then they began to attach a brick prayer house with an altar. Limestone was used for the tombs of the highest nobility. Of great importance was the construction of the royal tombs, where all the advanced technologies and inventions were applied. The remnants of the idea that the spirit of the leader would protect his tribe were transferred to the cult of the pharaoh. Often, eyes were depicted on the tops of the pyramids.

An important stage in the development of royal tombs is the idea of ​​increasing buildings vertically - for the first time this idea arises during the construction of the tomb of the Pharaoh of the III dynasty Djoser (~ 3000 BC), the so-called step pyramid. The name of its builder, Imhotep, survived until the end of Egyptian history as a sage, builder and astronomer, and later he was deified as the son of the god Ptah, and the Greeks compared him with their healer-god Asclepius.

The tomb of Djoser opens the way to the creation of a perfect and complete type of pyramid. The first such pyramid was the tomb of the king I 5th dynasty of Sneferu in Dashur (~ 2900 BC) - the predecessor of the famous pyramids in Giza (29-28 centuries BC)

The most famous pyramids, located at Giza, were built for the pharaohs of the 4th dynasty Khufu, whom the Greeks called Cheops; Khafra (Khefren) and Menkaura (Mikerin). The most grandiose of the three is the pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), it is the largest stone structure in the world: 146.6 m in height, and the length of the base side is 233 m.The pyramid is made of precisely hewn limestone blocks weighing about 2.5 tons each (total there are more than 2,300,000 pieces).

Each of the pyramids at Giza was surrounded by an architectural ensemble: sometimes there were small pyramids of queens nearby. Adjacent to the eastern side of the pyramid was the royal funeral temple, connected by a covered stone passage with a monumental gate in the valley. These gates were built where the waters of the Nile floods reached, and so on. the fields irrigated by the Nile were green to the east, and lifeless sands spread to the west, the gate stood as if on the verge of life and death.

The clearest idea of ​​the funeral temples at the pyramids in Giza is given by the remains of the temple at the Khafre pyramid (a rectangular building with a flat roof). Free-standing pillars are encountered for the first time in these temples. The buildings themselves are decorated with a combination of polished surfaces of various stones.

The tombs of the pharaohs of the 5th and 6th dynasties (2700-2400 BC) are of a different nature. The construction of colossal pyramids for the 4th dynasty greatly influenced the country's economy, around 2700 BC. there was a change of power. Now more attention was paid to the design of temples: the walls were covered with reliefs that glorified the pharaoh. It was at this time that the palm columns and papyri-shaped columns, characteristic of Egyptian architecture, appeared. A third type of Egyptian columns also appears: in the form of a bundle of lotus buds.

A new type of buildings appears - the so-called solar temples. An important element of which was a colossal obelisk, the top of which was trimmed with copper. Example: Sun Temple of Niuser-ra. It was also connected by a covered passage to a gate in the valley.

The sculpture of this time is represented by statues of the dead in the niches of prayer houses or in closed rooms behind the prayer houses, performed in monotonous sitting or standing positions. The sacred purpose of sculpture, as a replacement for the physical body, led to the early emergence of the Egyptian sculptural portrait. Example: Statue of the nobleman Ranofer from his tomb in Saqqara.

Nevertheless, some sculptors managed to create true masterpieces within the framework of the most severe canons:

Statue of the architect Khemiun

Statue of Prince Kaaper from the tomb in Sakkara

Pharaoh Menkaura, goddess Hathor and goddess of the nome

Statue of Pharaoh Khafre from his tomb in Giza

Scribe Kaya Statue

The sculptors gradually came to the need to refine the masks of the faces of the dead, especially when making heads or busts of the nobility, while the pharaohs were depicted exaggeratedly: with super-powerful bodies, an impassive gaze. A special embodiment of the pharaoh was the image of the sphinx - the body of a lion, and the head of the pharaoh. The most famous of all - the Great Sphinx is located at the monumental gate of the Khafre pyramid. It is based on a natural limestone rock, which resembled the figure of a reclining lion. The missing pieces were added from limestone slabs.

Separately, it is necessary to consider the statues and figurines of slaves and servants, placed in tombs for"Services" for the dead. These sculptures depicted people engaged in various jobs, moreover, without any canonical norms.

Girl making beer. Statuette from Saqqar, IV dynasty

Reliefs and paintings that covered the walls of tombs and temples occupied an important place in the art of the Old Kingdom. Two relief techniques were used: an ordinary bas-relief (a kind of relief, where the image protrudes above the background plane by no more than half of the volume) and the incised, characteristic of Egyptian art, where the surface of the stone remains intact, and the contours of the images are cut in.

Architect Khesira. Relief from his tomb in Saqqara

Two techniques of mural painting were also used: tempera on a dry surface and inlay of colored pastes into recesses. The paints were mineral. Paintings and reliefs depicted not only scenes of glorification of nobles and kings, they told about rural and craft work, fishing and hunting, but at the same time there were scenes of beating defaulters, immediately replaced by scenes of amusement of the nobility. It is in the images of ordinary people that defy the canons that one can trace a change in the worldview, in artistic creation.

During the period of the Old Kingdom, the artistic craft gained great importance and development: various vessels, furniture, ornaments; the connection with real life phenomena has been preserved.

Middle Kingdom Art

(21st century - early 19th century BC)

Frequent predatory wars, gigantic construction work led to the weakening of the royal power. As a consequence, in 2400 BC. Egypt fell apart into separate regions. In the 21st century BC. a new unification of the country began, there was a struggle between the nomes, the southern nomes emerged victorious, headed by the rulers of Thebes. They formed the XI Dynasty of the Pharaohs. But the struggle for power still continued among the subjects. Amenemkhet I and his successors managed to preserve the unity of the country, a new irrigation network was built (Fayum irrigation facilities). The general economic upsurge contributed to the development of art, the construction of the pyramids resumed. The predecessors of Anemkhet I resorted to a new design of their tombs - a combination of a pyramid with an ordinary rock tomb. The most significant of these is the tomb of Mentuhotep II and III in Deir el-Bahri.

The layout of the pyramids and temples of the 12th dynasty completely coincides with the location of the tombs of the pharaohs of the 5th-6th dynasties, but due to the change in economic conditions, the construction of giant stone pyramids was impossible, therefore the size of the new structures is much smaller, and the building material was raw brick, which changed the way of laying. The statues of the funeral temples imitate the examples of the Old Kingdom, but there are some differences in local centers, in particular in central Egypt, where the nomarchs still felt they were the rulers of their regions and imitated the customs of the royal palaces. Thus, a new direction in the art of the Middle Kingdom was formed, and artistic centers were formed.During civil strife, there were periods when there was no power of the pharaoh. Belief in the prevailing foundations, and in particular in the afterlife, was shaken, and new scientific discoveries also contributed to this. This is reflected in literature (the story of Sinukheta) and art, there is a greater gravitation towards realism.

The reliefs and paintings on the walls of the rock tombs of the nomarchs are a striking example of new trends. Particularly noteworthy are the reliefs from Meir, depicting common people.

The masters achieved particular success in depicting animals in the paintings of the tomb of nomarch 16 of Nome Khnumhotep II in Beni Hasan. Gradually, this experience was positively received in official art and was reflected in the royal portraits.

In order to glorify themselves, the Theban pharaohs began extensive temple construction. They tried to install as many of their images as possible in temples, inside and outside, and it was necessary to maximize similarity in order to consolidate the appearance of the pharaoh in the minds of the people.

Statue of Sanurset III, obsidian, 19th century BC.

Statue of amenemhatIII, black basalt, 19th century. BC.

Statue of amenemhatIII from Hawara, yellow limestone, 19th century. BC.

By the time of the reign of Senurset III, the royal power was strengthened, the nobility strove to take positions at the court. Court workshops began to play a huge role. Local creativity began to follow their creativity, more canonical. There is an increase in construction, including the pyramids. Example: the tomb of Amenemhat III in Hawar, the funeral temple was especially famous, especially in Greece.

The artistic craft has gained widespread development due to the growth of urban life. As before, a lot of utensils were made of stone and earthenware, metal was processed, and bronze vessels appeared. A new technique has appeared in jewelry - grain.

Among the discoveries of Middle Kingdom art are a three-aisled hall with a raised middle nave, pylons, and colossal statues outside the building. The growth of realistic tendencies is especially important, in particular in portrait statues.

Art of the first half of the New Kingdom. The art of the 18th dynasty

(16-15 centuries BC)

In the 18th century BC. there was a weakening of the central government. The ensuing long-term conquest of Egypt by the nomads was a period of economic and cultural decline. In the 16th century. BC. Thebes began the struggle against the nomads and for the unification of the country. Pharaoh Jahmes I was the first king of the 18th Dynasty. The victorious wars in Syria and Nubia contributed to the influx of funds and an increase in luxury and grand architecture. In the art of this period, the role of splendor and decorativeness, as well as the role of realistic aspirations, increases.

Lead role in art XVIII dynasties played Thebes where they were created best works arts of this time: Temple of TimeXVIII dynasty, the temple of the god Amun in Thebes - Karnak and Luxor. In Luxor, a new type of New Kingdom temple took on its finished form. The central colonnade was in the form of giant stone papyrus flowers.

Temple of Amun in Luxor

Temple of Amun at Karnak

An important place in the architecture of the 18th dynasty is occupied by the funeral royal temples located in Thebes on the western bank of the Nile. The tombs were separated from the funeral temples, they were carved in the gorges of the rocks, and the temples were erected below, on the plain. This idea belongs to the architect Inea. Temples are becoming more and more monumental (Temple of Amenhotep III from which only 2 giant statues of the pharaoh have survived:

A special place is occupied by the temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Del el-Bahri. Sculptures of external design are the least individual, only the most specific traits the face of the queen. The statues in the main chapel more closely reproduce its image.

From the middle of the 18th period, a new stage began to emerge: the severity of forms was replaced by decorativeness, sometimes turning into excessive elegance. There is a general interest in the volume, the transfer of portrait features. The canonicity of the royal statues did not allow to fully reflect all the innovations; this was more clearly manifested in the statues of private persons.

The development of the style in the Theban wall painting proceeded in a similar way. The most interesting are the tombs of the nobility, tk. royal ones contain narrowly religious subjects, with the exception of the Hatshepsut temple in Deir el-Bahri. The main images are scenes from life and religious plots, military themes and feast themes appear. Much attention is paid to movement in the composition. The figures of ordinary people contrast strangely with those of the nobility.

At the same time, Egyptian graphics appeared, drawings on papyri with texts"Books of the Dead". There is a flourishing of craft, multi-color inlays. The use of a vertical loom made it possible to produce fabrics with tapestry patterns. Plant motifs are especially popular.

Art of the time of Akhenaten and his successors. Amarna Art

(late 15th - early 14th century BC)

The consequence of the wars of conquest of the kings of the 18th dynasty and the enrichment of the nobility and priesthood was the growth of internal confrontation, which resulted in an open conflict at the beginning of the 14th century. BC. under Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who resolved this conflict with religious reform. He put forward a doctrine, declaring the solar disk under the name of the god Aton to be the only true deity. Pharaoh left Thebes and built himself a capital in central Egypt - Akhetaton, he himself took a new name - Akhenaten, which means"Spirit of Aton". He actively showed a break with the traditional past, which had a strong impact on art. The rejection of the canonical forms changed not only the form of the monuments, but also their content. They began to portray the king in Everyday life, they began to pay special attention to the environment. Took to re-create artistic images, new types of sanctuaries. The first artistic experiences were very unusual, as the masters had to retrain. However, the absence of a canon had a positive effect.

The reign of the XIX Dynasty was the years of a new political and economic upsurge. The influx of wealth and slaves increased due to external wars, but inside there was still a struggle between the pharaoh, the priesthood and the nobility. Theban art retains a reactionary desire to return to old traditions, the rulers tried to give more splendor and splendor to the capital.

The main object of construction in Thebes was, of course, the temple of Amun at Karnak, of the greatest scale. The memorial temple of Ramses II, the so-called Ramesseum in Abu Simbel, was also distinguished by its monumentality, in the first courtyard of which there was a colossal statue of the king (~ 20m in height).

The sculpture returns to the canonical images of antiquity, the external elegance is increasing more and more. However, secular images of the pharaoh and queen appear. Pharaoh is portrayed without exaggeration of muscles, as before, the image of a mighty ruler is conveyed by more realistic means - correct proportions, muscles protruding from under clothes.

Also, the legacy of the XVIII dynasty is visible in the reliefs: interest in the landscape, to individual traits, especially ethnic types. But all these new features did not violate the basic traditional conventions.

Among the Theban murals, the frescoes of the tombs of the masters who lived in an isolated settlement in the mountains of the Theban necropolis and were a closed group, the transfer of the situation in which went from father to son, stand apart. It was also a religious society, because participated in religious rituals, incl. and the cult of death. They were called"Hearers of the call."

On further development The art of the end of the New Kingdom was badly affected by long wars and a weakening economy, as well as civil strife. XX dynasty of pharaohs briefly managed to unite the country, but with the loss of the former foreign possessions. A little later, the country split into the northern one under the rule of the nomarchs of Tanis and the southern one with the capital in Thebes. Large-scale construction ceased after the death of the second pharaoh of the XX dynasty, Ramses III. In his time, the Khonsu temple in Karnak and the funeral temple with a palace in Medinet Abu were built. The tombs gradually decreased in size, the paintings became standard, the position of the artists fell, which significantly influenced the quality of the work.

Late Time Art

(11th century - 332 BC)

The wars waged by the pharaohs of the New Kingdom delayed development. During the 1st volume, there were constant uprisings of the population, the struggle of the slave owners. Starting from the 2nd century. BC. the state collapsed. In 671 BC. Egypt was conquered by the Assyrians, the struggle was led by the ruler of the western delta, who acted in alliance with the Greek cities, Asia Minor and Lydia. After the expulsion of the Assyrians, Egypt was united under the rule of the XXVI dynasty with the capital in Sais.

During the long disintegration, no major construction was carried out; it was resumed only in short periods of unification. At such a time, under the Libyan ruler Sheshanka and the Ethiopian pharaoh Taharqa, additions to Karnak were made - the construction of another courtyard with porticoes and a giant pylon.

During the 11th - 8th centuries. BC. Thebes and Tanis remained the artistic center. Theban art continued the traditions of the New Kingdom; artistic craft flourished in Tanis. The sculpture of this time is outwardly elegant monuments. Bronze figurines have become widespread to replace the expensive stone.

During the reign of the Ethiopian dynasty in artistic world revival began. Example: a sculptural portrait of Pharaoh Taharka (Hermitage) and Ethiopian princesses (The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts).

Statue of Montuemhet, Mayor of Thebes

The desire to idealize its history only intensified in subsequent years, especially when Egypt united under the rule of the conqueror of Assyria, Pharaoh Psamtik I. Trade routes improved and expanded, and construction began again, mainly concentrated in Sais. The builders, like everyone else, imitated ancient art.Archaization affected all areas: literature and religion, politics.

Despite the dire consequences of the Persian conquest (525 BC) and the short period of the struggle for independence, Egyptian artists created beautiful monuments. For example, the head of a priest from Memphis.

After the second conquest by the Persians, and then by the Greco-Macedonians (332 BC), Egypt retained political independence under the control of the Hellenistic dynasty of the Ptolemies, and found the strength to take up art. Temples in Effu, Espe, Dendera, on about. Philay. However, these architectural monuments should already be considered in the context of Hellenism.

The importance of Egyptian culture is great: it is rich literature (a fairy tale, a story, love lyrics arose), Egyptian science gave us the calendar and signs of the zodiac, the foundations of geometry and the first discoveries in the field of medicine, geography and history. This knowledge was highly respected in the ancient world, and later in the East. The first Greek art was shaped by the art of Ancient Egypt and influenced the minds of young Greek masters.

From the very beginning of Egyptian culture, painting played the role of the main decorative art. The painting of Ancient Egypt slowly developed over the millennia. What have the Egyptians achieved during this time?

Bas-relief walls most often served as the basis for painting. Paints were applied to the plastered walls. The placement of the murals was subject to strict rules dictated by the priests. Principles such as the correctness of geometric shapes and contemplation of nature were rigorously followed. The painting of Ancient Egypt has always been accompanied by hieroglyphs that explain the meaning of what is depicted.

Space and composition. In Egyptian painting, all elements of the composition appear flat. When it is required to represent the figures in depth, the artists superimpose them on top of each other. Drawings are distributed by horizontal stripes separated by lines. The most important scenes are always centered.

Image of a human figure. Egyptian drawings of people include features in the front and in the profile to the same extent. To maintain proportion, the artists drew a grid on the wall. The older designs consist of 18 squares (4 cubits), while the newer ones have 21 squares. Women were portrayed with pale yellow or pink skin. To create a masculine image, brown or dark red was used. It was customary to portray people in their prime.

to maintain proportions, the artists used a grid

Egyptian painting is characterized by the so-called "hierarchical" view. For example, the higher the social status of the person depicted, the bigger size figures. Therefore, in battle scenes, the pharaoh often looks like a giant. Images of people can be divided into archetypes: pharaoh, scribe, artisan, etc. The figures of the lower social strata are always more realistic and dynamic.

Applying color. The artists followed a predetermined program, which means that each color had a certain symbolism. It is believed that the origins of the meaning of colors in Egyptian painting were in the contemplation of the color play of the Nile. Let's highlight the meaning of the main colors used by the artists:

• blue - the promise of a new life;
• green - an expression of hopes of life, rebirth and youth;
• red is a symbol of evil and a barren land;
• white is a sign of victory and joy;
• black - a symbol of death and return to life in the other world;
• yellow - an expression of eternity and incorruptible divine flesh.

The background tone depends on the era. The Old Kingdom has a gray background, while the New Kingdom has a pale yellow background.

Painting of the Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom spans the period from the 27th to the 22nd centuries BC. It was then that the construction of the Great Pyramids took place. At this time, the bas-relief and painting did not yet differ from each other. Both means of expression were used to decorate the tombs of the pharaohs, members of royal family and officials. During the times of the Old Kingdom, a style of painting that was uniform for the whole country was formed.

Peculiarities

The first wall paintings are quite narrow colors, mainly black, brown, white, red and green shades. The image of people is subject to a rigid canon, the severity of which is the higher, the higher the status of the person depicted. Dynamism and expression are characteristic of the figures depicting secondary characters.

Mostly scenes from the life of the gods and pharaohs were depicted. Colorful frescoes and reliefs recreate the environment that should surround the deceased, no matter what world he is in. Painting achieves high filigree, both in the images of characters and in the silhouettes of hieroglyphs.

Example

The sculptures of Tsarevich Rahotep and his wife Nofret (27th century BC) are considered one of the most significant monuments of the Old Kingdom. The male figure is painted brick red and the female figure is yellow. The hair of the figures is black and the clothes are white. There are no halftones.

Middle Kingdom painting

It will focus on the period that lasted from the 22nd to the 18th century BC. Throughout this era, wall painting displays a structure and order that was absent in the era of the Old Kingdom. A special place is occupied by a painted multicolored relief.

Peculiarities

Intricate scenes can be seen in cave tombs, characterized by greater dynamism than in previous eras. Additional attention is paid to the contemplation of nature. Murals are increasingly being decorated floral ornaments... Attention is paid not only to the ruling class, but also to ordinary Egyptians, for example, you can see farmers at work. At the same time, the integral features of painting are the perfect order and clarity of what is depicted.

Example

Most of all, against the background of other monuments, the paintings of the tomb of nomarch Khnumhotep II stand out. The hunting scenes, where the figures of animals are rendered using halftones, deserve special attention. The paintings of the tombs in Thebes are no less impressive.

Painting of the New Kingdom

Scientists call the period from the 16th to the 11th century BC a new kingdom. This era stands out for the best examples of Egyptian art. At this time, painting reached its peak. The proliferation of tombs contributes to the development of painting on walls covered with plaster. Freedom of expression is most evident in the tombs of individuals.

Peculiarities

The era of the New Kingdom was characterized by a hitherto unknown color gradation and light transmission. Contacts with the peoples of Asia bring a fascination with details and ornamented forms. The impression of movement is enhanced. The dyes are no longer applied in an even matte layer, the artists are trying to show soft tonal overflows.

Through painting, the pharaohs demonstrated their strength to the border peoples. Therefore, it was common to depict scenes reproducing war episodes. We should also mention the theme of the pharaoh in a harnessed war chariot, the latter was introduced by the Hyksos. Images appear historical character... Art increasingly resonates with national pride. The rulers turn the walls of the temples into "canvases" that focus on the role of the pharaoh as protector.

Example

Tomb of Nefertari. It is a perfect ensemble of painting and architecture. It is currently the most beautiful tomb in the Valley of the Queens. The murals cover an area of ​​520 m². On the walls you can see some chapters from the Book of the Dead, as well as the queen's path to the afterlife.

• The first surviving ancient Egyptian monumental painting was discovered in a burial vault of 4 thousand BC, located in Gierakonpole. She depicts people and animals.
• The ancient Egyptians painted with mineral paints. Black paint was extracted from soot, white from limestone, green from malachite, red from ocher, blue from cobalt.
• In ancient Egyptian culture, the image played the role of a double of reality. The painting of the tombs guaranteed the departed that the same benefits await them in the afterlife as in the human world.
• In Ancient Egypt, images were believed to have magical properties. Moreover, their strength directly depended on the quality of the painting, which explains the special care with which the Egyptians treated painting.

Despite numerous studies devoted to the painting of Ancient Egypt, far from all the secrets of this art have been solved. To understand the true meaning of each drawing and each sculpture, scientists will have to work for more than one century.

Painting in Egypt has always been an integral part of architecture and has never been an independent art form. The entire sculpture, round and relief, was painted without gradation of shades, the figures were outlined with contours. These pictorial principles were also used in wall painting, which in the era of the Old Kingdom was closely associated with relief art. It was during this period that two main types of mural painting techniques spread: with tempera on a dry surface and an inlay of colored pastes into pre-made recesses.

The earliest example of Egyptian painting is the painting of the tomb at Hierakonpole, dating back to the pre-dynastic period (presumably the Hersea). These murals, which are of great interest to archaeologists, are so primitive that they can hardly be considered art. They are only mentioned here for the reason that they are the earliest known examples of painting and are probably the earliest in this cradle of civilization, the Eastern Mediterranean.

Murals from the times of the 1st and 2nd dynasties have not survived, but the painting in the tomb of Nefer Ma'at, belonging to the 3rd dynasty, shows what an Egyptian artist, who had extremely limited funds at his disposal, could have done. The artist depicted geese and, despite the primitive technique - only the contours of the birds, painted over in a natural color, and small tufts of grass - the picture as a whole makes an impression. The murals in the tomb of Khesir, also belonging to the III dynasty, which depict various household items, are of interest only to archaeologists. The paintings in the tombs of the Old Kingdom are not of artistic value, but they deserve attention in terms of colors.

Paintings of the era of the Middle Kingdom have not survived to us, but paintings in the tombs of the nomarchs of Menat-Khufu (modern Beni-Hasan) have survived. They were made by local artists whose craftsmanship cannot be compared with the artists of Memphis. Their attempts to present the torso in profile were unsuccessful, but their paintings are distinguished by bright colors and beautiful patterns. During this period, painting began to replace reliefs, possibly due to its low cost and in order to save time.

During the reign of the 18th dynasty, the main place in the decoration of temples and tombs was given to murals. They decorate the tombs of Theban nobles and officials. Amenhotep II introduced the fashion to decorate the walls of tombs with paintings, and this custom persisted until the end of the XX dynasty. The walls of the burial chamber of Amenhotep II are painted in the color of papyrus, and religious texts are written against this yellowish background in green hieroglyphs. The dark blue ceiling is strewn with glowing stars. On the columns there are images of the pharaoh making sacrifices to Osiris, Anubis and Hathor. Over time, the pharaohs made changes to the design of their tombs, and artists, depicting religious scenes, were able to use the brightest colors of the palette. The Shrine of Seti I is an excellent example of this design of tombs. The murals tell in detail about the sailing of the solar boat after twelve hours of night on the underground Nile. The artist depicted the god Ra with the head of a ram, standing surrounded by gods and goddesses on a boat, completing a night journey through the underworld and about to ascend to heaven; astronomical constellations and celestial bodies, made in the form of outlandish animals; Egyptians and peoples known to them. Thanks to the paintings of the burial chamber, the tomb of Seti I is rightfully considered the pearl of the Valley of the Kings.

In Tell el-Amarna, as one would expect, painting underwent fundamental changes, but here Akhenaten's influence was beneficial. Painters, unlike sculptors, took up new ideas. They depicted animals in motion, used beautiful flowers and plants as a background to decorate the temples and palaces of Akhetaton, new capital built by Akhenaten. A fragment of the painting of the lower part of the wall of the palace in Tell el-Amarna has survived, which depicts two princesses, the daughter of Akhenaten, sitting at the feet of the mother's mother. The artist tried to bypass an insurmountable obstacle at that time: to depict a volumetric object on a flat surface. He tried to solve this problem by darkening the upper parts of the figures and lightening the lower ones.

In the Late Period, wooden steles were covered with murals, which usually depicted offering offerings to gods or deceased relatives. These murals, primitive from the point of view of composition and design, amaze with their colors; one feels that the Egyptian artists were good colorists. Concerning landscape painting, then the only known painting related to this period. It depicts the tomb of a woman named Zed-Amon-ankh at the edge of the desert; in the foreground are date palms and sycamore trees; a cliff rises behind the tomb in the background. The figure of the mourner is disproportionately large, but one must understand that from the point of view of the Egyptian, this scene would have no meaning without her.

Discovered a large number of drawings on papyri from the period of the XVIII dynasty, but especially many relating to the Late period. Among these images, describing the preparation and conduct of the burial, the work of supplying the deceased and his feeding, praying to the gods, there are scenes describing the path of the deceased to the kingdom of Osiris and stay in it. These illustrations of "books of the other world", often colored, demonstrate the filigree work of the painters.

At first, Greek art, which appeared in Egypt along with the establishment of trade relations between Greece and Egypt, had little impact on Egyptian art. When Greek influence did take its toll on Egyptian sculpture, it was under the Ptolemies; nothing can be said about painting, since no paintings have survived. Only in the Roman period did murals appear again, and only in one area of ​​the country, in Fayum, where the Ptolemies founded settlements for foreign mercenaries and Greeks who lived in the Delta. Fayum portraits are a synthetic fusion of Greek and Egyptian cultures; Egyptian, since they were used in the Egyptian burial rite, replacing the portrait sarcophagi, and the Greek - in style, mood and, possibly, in technique.

Under the Romans, it seems that the original Egyptian art has completely disappeared, however, as well as the ancient religion and writing of Egypt. In pursuit of other people's artistic ideas and methods, artists turned into copiers, instead of remaining creators. However, with the introduction of Christianity, a new direction in art appears, so closely related to the ancient that the question arises: was it really a new direction or a revival? ancient art? By that time, Coptic artists had learned to draw a human figure from the front and were actively using their newfound ability. But one cannot fail to notice that beautiful images, strict lines and facial expressions bear a great resemblance to the works of ancient artists. These works are also reminiscent of the works of Byzantine masters. However, the flourishing of Byzantine art occurred much later, which means that it can be assumed that Byzantine artists drew inspiration from Egyptian art. For centuries Byzantine art had a huge impact on European art, but it seems, like the art of many countries, originated in the Nile Valley.

The canons and traditions established in antiquity, preserved for millennia, were passed on from generation to generation. The stability of religious beliefs and the cult purpose of art monuments have determined for centuries the established strict rules for the choice of themes, the location of scenes in reliefs and painting, the approval of poses and gestures in a round sculpture. However, when creating drawings on papyrus, the artist behaved more frivolously. The detailed drawing of the door attracts attention. Sketches of scenes of everyday life are interesting. They give a clearer idea of ​​the artistic ability of the Egyptians than many drawings and paintings.

In the religion of the ancient Egyptians, their ideas about the afterlife were of decisive importance. These representations had a great influence on the development and formation of the style of the pyramids and tombs, on the entire architecture of Ancient Egypt as a whole. People considered preparation for the afterlife one of the main tasks of their earthly life, therefore, the improvement of the future tomb played important role... The afterlife was envisioned by the Egyptians as a continuation of earthly existence: man, even after death, continues his path in the kingdom of immortality. According to the religious teachings of the ancient Egyptians, man had several souls. The main ones were “Ka” and “Ba”. “Ka” was the spiritual counterpart of a person with whom he meets after death. In the cult of the dead, "Ka" occupied a very important place. The tomb of the deceased was called “the house of Ka”, the priest who performed funeral rites was called “the servant of Ka”. “Ka” made the deceased able to exist after death, to perform vital functions. “Ba” meant what might be called “pure spirit”. He left a person after his death and went to heaven, this was the inner energy of a person, his divine content. According to initial ideas, only the pharaoh had the right to exist in the afterlife. Funeral priests performed magic spells, performed funeral rites, and made sacrifices. Pharaoh could bestow immortality on members of his family, royal nobles. This meant that they could be buried next to the pyramid or the tomb of the overlord. An ordinary person had no right to immortality and could not get into the other world. Only those slaves and servants who were depicted on the walls of the tomb had such a right: it was believed that the pharaoh took them with him. In the other world, inhabited by the dead, there can only be one (and this is the most important thing) who was provided in this world with everything necessary for the afterlife. This meant absolutely everything that the deceased used during his lifetime: housing, food, servants, slaves and basic necessities. But, first of all, it was necessary to keep the body intact - to protect it from any outside influences. Only if the body of “Ba” was completely preserved, the soul of the deceased could, freely moving in space, at any time reconnect with the body. These ideas gave rise to two consequences: the embalming of corpses and the construction of tombs, which were more reminiscent of fortresses. Each pyramid was supposed to serve as protection for the mummy hidden in it from any possible enemy, from any impudent actions, from disturbing peace.

The Egyptians spent their entire lives preparing for death, and they built their tombs for so long that it took the work of many generations. When Pharaoh was born, he began to build himself a tomb - the house of death. The colossal efforts of the entire population of the country went to build the temple of eternity for the Pharaoh. All kinds of art were present in the funeral temples: painting, sculpture, and various ornaments, everything was aimed at ensuring that in the next world, in the afterlife, the pharaoh felt as good as on this one. For eternal life it was necessary to preserve the body. For this, the Egyptians began to make mummies. They were made using a special technology that has not yet been solved. Pyramids were not built for ordinary people. They were buried in sand pits, and a hill was poured on top in the form of a small truncated pyramid. Subsequently, it began to be faced with stone slabs. In Arabic, this form was called mastaba(bench). This word has remained in the history of art, meaning an ancient form of Egyptian burial.

Even building the middle pyramid was not easy. We had to send entire expeditions to deliver granite and alabaster blocks to the Giza plateau or the Saqqara plateau. From the beginning of the New Kingdom, pharaohs began to be buried in the Valley of the Kings west of Thebes, where a new necropolis was formed. There are about eighty pyramids in total. More recently, in 1952, the Egyptian archaeologist Mohammed Zakaria Goneim discovered another hitherto unknown pyramid in Sakkara, twenty kilometers from Cairo!

The oldest pyramid - Pharaoh Djoser's pyramid- was erected about five thousand years ago. Its builder Imhotep was an architect, doctor, astronomer, writer, adviser to the pharaoh, for many centuries he was considered the greatest sage of antiquity, legends were made about him, his works and books had great authority for millennia. Imhotep was considered a magician and wizard, and in later times he was deified, temples were built in his honor and statues were erected. The site chosen by Imhotep for the construction of the Djoser pyramid complex was on the edge of a plateau with a beautiful view of Memphis. The complex occupied a rectangular area (545x278 meters). It was surrounded by a wall of white limestone ten meters high. The wall was reinforced with towers and divided by flat ledges; there were fourteen gates in it, only one was real. If you look at the gates from inside the complex, then it seemed that they were all open.

The pyramid itself was in the middle of the complex, its height was 60 meters, it had a base with sides of 118x140 meters. Construction work at different stages was carried out in different ways: at first, small stones were used, then the size of stone blocks gradually increased. At the final stage of construction, the pyramid was faced with blocks of white limestone. The burial chamber was under the pyramid at a depth of 28 meters. Its walls were covered with slabs of pink granite. A shaft and corridors with many side passages and branches led to the chamber. They housed burial utensils and sacrificial offerings. Some of the rooms were lined with blue tiles, which gave the appearance of a firmament at the top of the wall and on the ceiling. Archaeologists have discovered three bas-relief images of Pharaoh Djoser: he is depicted during religious ceremonies. Under the ground, on the eastern side of the pyramid, eleven narrow burial chambers were prepared. They were located at a depth of 33 meters. Members of the royal family were buried here, mainly, children.

Pharaoh Djoser's pyramid looks like six mastabas, placed one on top of the other, steps rising to the sky. What was it - steps to heaven, to God, or was it a prototype of the primary hill Ben-Ben, from which, according to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, the whole earth began. Most likely, it was both. The gods were always at the top - in the sky, and the primary Ben-Ben hill in the form of a triangle became the most important symbolic form for the ancient Egyptians. Djoser's mummy was buried in a special chamber at the base of the pyramid. After the funeral, no one could get into it, and neither should have disturbed the ashes of the Pharaoh, who would lie there forever. A huge temple around the pyramid was built so that contemporaries and followers of the pharaoh could bring him their gifts, pray for his eternal life... The temple was surrounded by a thick wall. Behind it were chapels with treasuries, but people could enter there only on certain days in very long processions. The temple was poorly preserved, but even now we can see how the ancient Egyptians carved semi-columns from the stone walls, which differ from the usual forms.

The most famous are the three large pyramids near Giza: Cheops (Khufu), Khafren (Khafre) and Mekerin (Menkaura). The largest of them, the Pyramid of Cheops, built in the XXVIII century BC. NS. Based on his Egyptian impressions, Herodotus tells about the construction of this pyramid. Cheops forced the entire Egyptian people to work for himself, dividing it into two parts. He was the first to order the delivery of blocks from quarries in the Arabian mountains to the banks of the Nile. Others were engaged in their further transportation to the foot of the Libyan mountains. 100,000 people worked permanently, they replaced each other every three months. For ten years of hard work, a road was built along which the blocks were delivered to the river. According to Herodotus, the construction of this road was no less difficult than the construction of the pyramid itself. The road was paved with polished stone slabs decorated with carvings. Completed construction work around the pyramid, completed the construction of underground structures, which were intended for the tomb and burial chamber of the pharaoh. The construction of the pyramid itself continued for another twenty years.

Originally the Pyramid of Cheops rose by 147 meters, but due to the onset of sands, its height decreased to 137 meters. Now at its top is the platform on which the British air defense post was located during the Second World War. Each side of the square base of the pyramid is 233 meters, its area is more than 50,000 square meters. The pyramid consists of 2,300,000 cubic limestone blocks with smoothly sanded sides. According to Napoleon's calculations, the stone blocks from the three pyramids in Giza would be enough to encircle the whole of France with a wall 3 meters high and 30 centimeters thick. Each block weighs an average of 2.5 tons, and the heaviest weighs 15 tons, the total weight of the pyramid is 5.7 million tons.

"Seven Wonders of the World" - this is how the seven most famous monuments of architecture and sculpture were named in the ancient world. One of the wonders was the pyramids of Giza. No wonder there is a proverb: "Everything is afraid of time, but time is afraid of the pyramids!"

At the very core of the pyramid is a small burial chamber. Many centuries passed before they could find her. Only with the help of the most modern devices was it possible to find the entrance to the pyramid, walled up by ancient builders. Inside, it is cut through by passages, corridors, and to the burial chamber itself there is a wide fifty-meter gallery, faced with granite, covered with a kind of vault that allows the walls to withstand the enormous weight of the stone mass pressing on the gallery from above. The ancient wise builders made several more unloading chambers so that the pyramid was not too heavy. And, nevertheless, it is difficult to even guess how much such a whopper weighs.

Getting the stones to the construction site was not easy. The ancient priests first chose a place with a fairly stable ground, then they carefully leveled the construction site and accurately oriented it to the cardinal points, since the main entrance to the pyramid was to be located strictly in the north. Then an expedition was equipped to the distant Libyan mountains, where, with the help of very easy way huge blocks of stone were carved: a wooden wedge was driven into the cracks and poured water over it. With the help of the swollen tree, the lump was split off. One or two of these stones were loaded onto papyrus boats and the sacred process of transporting the stone to the construction site began. The Egyptians did not yet know the wheels, therefore, in order to transport stones over the sand, they used sleds, which were made of wood, and logs served as runners. They were pulled by slaves who ate only bread, sunflower oil and onions with garlic. The next step was the surface treatment of each stone block. The stones were polished so that only a razor blade could be inserted between them. There is no binder solution between them, they are held only by their own weight.

In order to lift these boulders up, they came up with a very clever way. Bulk earthen ramps were erected around the construction site. As the pyramid grew, the ramps rose higher and higher, as if encircling the entire future building.

The pyramid that we see now is devoid of the most important thing - its beautiful facing. In ancient times, it was faced with white slabs of limestone, and the very top - with gold, which in Egypt was "more than the sand of the sea." Gold shone in the sun and thereby connected the earthly pyramid with the heavenly world. The cladding went from top to bottom, and when the builders reached the ground, the pyramid turned out to be complete. As the lining progressed, the ramps were removed. The pyramid of Cheops for the millennium remained an unsurpassed structure, created by people. Its height is almost one hundred and forty-seven meters. Around the pyramid of Cheops there was a huge temple through which the body of the pharaoh was carried. The lower temple was located near the Nile. Prayers were performed there, and then the procession slowly moved to the upper temple. Nothing remained of them, although the remains of a temple have been preserved at the neighboring pyramid of Khafre.

Pyramid of Khafre stands in the middle of this great triad. The most famous one lies near her Great Sphinx with the face of Pharaoh Khafre... It is hewn from a block of stone and slightly built on. The alleys of such sphinxes were guarded by processions moving with the body of the pharaoh to the place of his eternal rest. Two of these sphinxes lie on the embankment of the Neva in St. Petersburg. These are real sphinxes brought from Egypt. Pyramids of Khafre and Mikerin their southeastern peaks are in line with the great pyramid of Cheops. Pharaoh Mikerin was not as significant a figure as Cheops. His wives and children are buried next to him in very small pyramids. The pyramids at Giza are the only and unique in the entire globe. Even in Ancient Egypt they soon stopped building them - it took too much material and human effort.

In the temple of Pharaoh Mentuhotep I, another pyramid was built, connected with the funeral temple into one large complex located in the Deir el-Bahri valley. The complex has a majestic temple, surrounded on all sides by porticoes. Egyptian builders were the first to learn how to put free-standing supports. In the temple of Mentuhotep I, we see completely new forms: ramps, open courtyards, porticos with columns made in the form of sacred plants of Ancient Egypt. The open courtyards in the funeral temples were similar to the courtyards in the homes of ordinary Egyptians, but for the pharaohs they had a very special meaning. They were called hebsed. Hebsed was the celebration of the thirtyth anniversary of the reign of the pharaoh, when the ritual murder of statues was performed. Such a Hebsed statue of Mentuhotep I has survived to this day. Pharaoh had to make a ritual run around the court to prove that he could rule Egypt further.

The same architectural forms, only without the pyramid, were used in Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, in the same valley of Deir el-Bahri. On the eastern bank of the Nile, temples were built dedicated to the great god Amon-Ra, who united all of Egypt. The largest of these temples, Karnak and Luxor, were located in ancient Thebes. Karnak was built for two thousand years, but it almost did not affect it. Architecture, like all Egyptian art, was very traditional. The canons that existed there, no one dared to violate. What we see in Karnak, or rather what was left of it, was later used in almost all the temples of Ancient Egypt. In front of the entrance to the temple there were huge statues of the pharaohs, next to them - obelisks. The obelisk is as if frozen Sunray... Obelisks stand in Paris, St. Petersburg and Istanbul, but this form appeared in Ancient Egypt. Is it sculpture or architecture, or both? The statues are so large that it is difficult to tell whether they are columns or colossus. They were often called colossi. They caused horror and awe even among the ancient Greeks, who perfectly mastered the art of architecture and sculpture. To get to the territory of the temple, the procession had to pass between the mighty pylons.

Temple of Amun was surrounded by a huge wall separating it from the outside world. At first, the procession entered a large, sun-drenched and colonnaded peristyle courtyard. Between the columns stood statues of the pharaoh, equal in size to the mighty columns. Passing further, through the next pylons, people found themselves in a semi-dark room, the light into which was pouring only through small windows from above. This is a colossal hall of columns - a hypostyle hall, the central columns of which reached a height of more than twenty meters. The vault above them was painted like the sky - blue with gold stars. The light of the sun was transformed, getting there, and the person felt himself small, small. The columns were in the form of lotuses, papyri, or bundles of reeds.

The next passage also went through the pylons, an open courtyard bathed in sun, with columns and statues of the pharaohs, and a columned hall. And only then did the sacred premises begin: the prayer house, the treasury and the temple itself, inside which there were a sacred statue and a boat.

The construction of temples began precisely from this core, from which the statue of Amun was taken out on great holidays, plunged onto a sacred boat and set sail along the Nile. Many of the great pharaohs contributed to the construction of this temple, but some of them were merciless to the creations of their predecessors. The great Queen Hatshepsut destroyed almost everything that was built before her. And Pharaoh Thutmose III, who ruled after her, turned out to be just as ruthless and destroyed all the halls with all the columns and statues that this queen had erected. There were a lot of inscriptions on the columns and in the halls. François Champollion, the great Frenchman who, in the twenties of the nineteenth century, was able to decipher the Egyptian script, read almost the entire history of Ancient Egypt - about the great conquests and campaigns, victories and defeats, of which there were a great many in this long and long history.

Temple in Luxor was built almost the same as in Karnak. They are connected to each other by a long alley of sphinxes. The temple in Luxor is also a "solar temple", which also contained a sacred boat. There, too, were hypostyle halls and peristyle courtyards, in which there were more than one hundred and fifty columns, some of them over twenty meters high, and about three meters wide. One can imagine how depressed the ancient man felt when he got there. The greatness of the gods and pharaohs was felt, who identified themselves with these gods. Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IY) tried to interfere with the hierarchy of the Egyptian gods and single out the main one from them - Aton, the god of the sunbeam. He moved the capital to a new place, built the new city of Akhet-Aton, but his revolution was soon ended. It lasted only 25 years, which by Egyptian standards is a pause.

But even more interesting is the funeral temple of Pharaoh Ramses II in Abu Simbel... It became famous due to the fact that, by order of UNESCO, it was moved to a new place, in connection with the construction of the Aswan Dam. Modern builders with great difficulty were able to transport huge stones that were carved out of the rock by our ancestors.

This temple is a rock tomb. He has practically no ground structures. All rooms, all halls, the tomb itself are located in the depths of the rock. Outside - only a facade with huge statues of the pharaoh. The sunbeam penetrates through the narrow door. Twice a year he illuminates two of the three gods to whom this temple is dedicated - the statue of the god Amun and the statue of the god Horus. God Pta was never illuminated by the sun. Sculpture and architecture share a common life here. They cannot be separated because they are carved from the same rock. It was only when the temple was moved to a new place that it became clear how deep the ancient builders could see through the rocks. They were even able to see a crack in the rock, thanks to which a natural support was formed that did not allow the facade to fall. But nothing is more majestic than temple in Abu Simbel, was not built by the Egyptians anymore.

Task number 22. Fill in the missing words.

Egypt was the name of the country that was located (along the banks of which river? From which place and to which sea?) along the banks of the Nile River from the first rapids to the Mediterranean Sea (on which continent? in which part?) in northeastern Africa .
The first capital of the Egyptian state was the city Memphis .
The kings of ancient Egypt are called Pharaoh .

Task number 23. Answer the questions and complete the assignment.

In the ancient Egyptian "A Tale of Two Brothers," the older brother says to the younger: "Let's prepare a plow and a team of bulls, because the grain field has come out from under the water ..."

Explain these words of the older brother. What does he suggest to do? In what month, according to our calendar, fields in Ancient Egypt were freed from water? What natural phenomenon was this associated with? Describe it.

He offered to take up plowing. In July, the Nile began to flood, which is associated with the season of tropical downpours in the areas of the river head. The current brought rotten tropical plants and salt sediments, which served as an excellent fertilizer. By November, the water subsided and it was time for plowing.

Task number 24. Complete the drawing task of our time.

The ancient Egyptian text says: “Woe to the farmer! He is tied, his wife and children are tied. "

Describe a picture of tax collection in Egypt. Imagine who this Egyptian is in white robes and with a staff in his hand. What kind of people are accompanying him (right)? What is the cross-legged man sitting on the ground doing? To the right of it are two empty baskets: what will they be filled with? Whom and why were they brought to their knees (center)? Who is this woman with children (left)? Why did this happen to the farmer as a grief?

A tax collector is depicted in white clothes. He is accompanied by armed guards and porters. A scribe sits on the ground, in whose documents it is written how much grain should be removed, for which baskets were prepared, depicted to the right of the scribe. The peasant is probably unable to hand over the grain, so he was brought to his knees. On the left we see his wife and children. In ancient Egypt, even natural disasters were not exempt from tax and the peasant faced severe punishment.

Task number 25. Fill out the "Ancient Egypt" outline map.

1. Write down the name of the river that flows through Egypt and mark the 1st threshold on it.
2. Paint green the cropping areas in Egypt (dotted lines).
3. Write the names of the two seas closest to Egypt.
4. Fill in the circle for the ancient capital of Egypt and write in its name.
5. Mark the area of ​​the pyramids with an icon.

Task number 27.Fill in the missing words.

The largest conquests were made about 1500 years BC Pharaoh by name Thutmose .
The Egyptian warriors made spearheads, hatchets and blades from bronze ... This is the name of an alloy of two metals: copper and tin .
The troops of the pharaohs conquered a gold-rich country in Africa Nubia , in Asia - rich in copper ore deposits Sinai peninsula and countries:
1. Palestine
2. Phoenicia
3. Syria
The borders of the Egyptian kingdom in Asia reached the river Euphrates , and in Africa - up to 5 rapids on the Nile river.

Task number 28.Fill in the missing dates.

A single state in Egypt was formed about 3000 years BC
The pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops was built around 2560 years BC
Pharaoh Thutmose's conquests were made around 1500 years BC

Task number 29. Fill out the contour map "Pharaoh's military campaigns".

1. Mark with arrows the direction of the conquest campaigns of the Egyptian troops.
2. Circle the boundaries of the Kingdom of Egypt around 1500 BC.
3. Write the name of the Asiatic river, which reached the borders of the Egyptian kingdom in the north ( Euphrates).
4. Fill in the circle denoting a city in Asia, which was besieged by the troops of Pharaoh Thutmose for more than six months, and write the name of this city ( Megiddo).
5. Fill in the circle representing the capital of Egypt during the time of Pharaoh Thutmose, and write the name of this city ( Thebes).
6. Countries and the peninsula conquered by the pharaohs outside of Egypt are indicated on the map with numbers. Write their names:
1. Nubia
2. Sinai peninsula
3. Palestine
4. Phoenicia
5. Syria

Task number 30.Fill in the "timeline".

Mark on the "timeline" the dates associated with the reign of the pharaohs Cheops and Thutmose. Could these rulers of Egypt know anything about each other? Explain why you think so.

Only Thutmose could know about Cheops, since he lived after him.

Task number 31.Fill in the missing letters in the names of the gods and sacred animals worshiped by the ancient Egyptians.

A mo n - the sun god
A on n - god of darkness
G e b - the god of the earth
N at t - goddess of the sky
T O t - god of wisdom
B aste t - patroness of women and their beauty
A pi c - sacred bull
WITH e t - god of the desert
O siri c - pharaoh and judge in the kingdom of the dead
G O r - god - the patron saint of the reigning pharaoh in Egypt
AND seed a - goddess - wife of Osiris
A nubi c - god - the patron saint of the dead
M aa t - goddess of truth

Task number 32.Remember the myths about the gods and answer the questions.

1. How did the Egyptians call the Cat and the Serpent depicted in the drawing of our time? Who always wins in the battle between the Cat and the Serpent? Where does it take place? How long does it take?

In the form of a cat, the sun god Ra is depicted, in the form of a serpent, the god of darkness and evil Apopis. Every night they fight underground and Ra always defeats Apop.

2. Describe a picture of our time. What is depicted on it? Whose names do you know of those shown in the picture? What do you know about each of them? What is the purpose of the wooden box?

According to the myth, Seth brought a sarcophagus to the house of Osiris and invited the guests to find out who he would be in height. When Osiris lay in the sarcophagus, Set slammed it and threw it into the Nile. Osiris and Set were brothers. Osiris then became the king of the underworld, and Set the god of chaos, destruction, war, became the personification of evil, Satan.

Task number 33.Answer the questions.

Remember the legends about the gods. Who could say such words about himself? For what reason?

1. I hid him, I hid him for fear that he would not be killed. I called the inhabitants of the swamps to help me. One wise woman told me: “Do not be discouraged and do not be afraid! Your child is inaccessible to his adversary: ​​the thickets are impassable, death does not enter through them! "

Isis. After the death of her husband, Osiris, Isis was forced to hide with her son Horus in order to save him from Set.

2. Envy and anger torment me. The one whom I envy is handsome, kind, commands thousands of people. They all curse and hate me. For the sake of seizing power in the country, I will do anything, up to murder.

Set. He was the brother of Osiris, who ruled Egypt. Seth was jealous of his brother and sought to seize power.

3. My name is Amamat, which means "Devourer." Those of you who did not do evil and did not cause other people's tears should not be afraid of my sharp teeth. But woe to envious people, liars and thieves! Sooner or later we will meet with them.

A mythical creature in the form of a hippo with paws and mane of a lion and the head of a crocodile. She lived in the underworld. At the trial of Osiris, she devoured the souls of sinners.

Task number 34.Answer the questions for the drawing of our time.

Night ... Where are the two Egyptians sneaking? "I am afraid of the wrath of the gods!" - one trembles with fear. “Don't be a coward - we will propitiate the gods with sacrifices! Let's hurry, I know how to get inside! " - another hurries.

What are they up to? What attracts their stone masses? You will give an answer if you remember what the archaeologists found in the unlooted tomb of Tutankhamun, carved into the rocks on the west bank of the Nile.

They make their way to the pyramids to rob them. After the death of the pharaoh, they were buried in a sarcophagus, which was made of pure gold, but in addition to the sarcophagus itself, the tomb was filled with jewelry, adornments, and valuable things.

Task number 35.Consider the painting from an ancient Egyptian tomb on the front cover of the notebook, answer the questions, insert the missing words (see picture).

1. Which of the Egyptian gods is depicted on the right? What did this god look like according to the ideas of the Egyptians? To what place will he lead one day every person living on earth?

The god of Ancient Egypt Anubis, with the head of a jackal and the body of a man. He was the guide of the dead to the afterlife.

2. What oath did the Egyptians prepare to take at this place? How did their beliefs come to know if they were lying?

The Egyptians swore that they did not commit sins. The heart of the deceased, that is, the soul, was weighed on the scales by Thoth and Anubis. On the other side of the scale lay the feather of the goddess of truth, Maat. If the soul was lighter than a feather, then the Egyptian was telling the truth.

3. Identify by the headdress who the person depicted on the left was. Describe his clothes and jewelry.

This is Pharaoh. He wears a loincloth with an ornate apron. On the shoulders there is an adornment - a necklace-mantle and bracelets on the hands.

4. Suppose why there are small drawings on the wall of the tomb. Who or what are they portraying? Why are some of them surrounded by an oval frame?

The Egyptians believed that everything depicted on the walls accompanied the deceased in the afterlife, therefore they portrayed themselves, their home, family and everything that surrounded a person during life. Only the names of the pharaoh and his wives were enclosed in an oval frame.

5. Remember how in Egypt it was customary to depict a person on reliefs and in paintings. We kind of look at it from different points of view. On some parts of his body - in front (which ones?): on the shoulders and eyes , and on the others - on the side (which ones?): on the head and legs .

Task number 36.Look at the ancient Egyptian statues on the back cover of the notebook, complete the assignments and answer the questions (see picture).

1. Why were the statues of the nobleman and his wife placed in the tomb? Why were the statues supposed to look like the people buried in the tomb?

According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, the soul of the deceased from time to time returns from the kingdom of Osiris and takes up residence in the mummy. If the soul, having arrived in the tomb, does not find the mummy, it will perish and its afterlife will end. Therefore, a stone or wooden statue of the deceased was placed in the tomb, exactly reproducing his appearance. It was believed that the soul could move into the statue if the mummy did not survive.

2. Suppose why the nobleman and his wife are depicted as young people, although they may have died in old age.

According to the Egyptians, in the "fields of Osiris", that is, in paradise, everyone is young and beautiful.

3. Describe each of the statues. What poses are the nobleman and his wife in? What position are their arms and legs in?

The statues are in a seated position, legs are together, and right hand on the heart.

4. Why are the nobleman and his wife depicted with different skin colors?

This is due to the painting technique. Men have always been depicted with darker skin.

Task number 37.Answer the questions.

1. Why did a person who can read and write seemed to the Egyptians a real sage?

In Ancient Egypt, there was a huge number of hieroglyphs (more than 500), the writing system was very complex, so it seemed like a huge work to learn it.

2. Who was it easier to master the literacy: a boy in Ancient Egypt or a Russian schoolchild in our days? Explain why you think so.

It is easier for a schoolboy of our days. The Russian alphabet has 33 letters and in addition to consonants, there are vowel sounds. In Egyptian writing, there were no hieroglyphs for vowels, in addition, the number of hieroglyphs was huge, and, in addition, special signs were used to correctly read the combinations of hieroglyphs. All this made the letter very difficult.

3. On what and with what did the pupils of the Egyptian schools write?

First, they wrote on shards of pottery. When a student mastered writing, he was given papyrus for writing. They wrote with a thin reed stick, using black and red paints.

4. Why could Egyptians who graduated from high school afford to wear white clothes without having blisters on their hands?

The profession of a scribe was considered prestigious and very profitable, they were part of the court of the pharaohs and were exempted from paying taxes, serving in the army and any kind of physical work.

Task number 38.Solve an ancient problem and answer the questions.

An ancient Egyptian problem book written on papyrus for the school has the following problem: “There were seven houses, each with seven cats, each cat ate seven mice, each mouse ate seven spikelets, each ear eaten could give seven measures of grain. Find the sum of the total number of houses, cats, mice, ears and measures of grain. "

1. Let's find this amount together.

How many cats lived in seven houses? 7x7 = 49
How many mice have cats eaten? 49x7 = 343
How many spikelets did mice eat before they were eaten by cats? 343x7 = 2401
How many measures of grain would spikelets eaten by mice give? 2401x7 = 16807
Now add the numbers:
houses 7
cats 49
mice 343
spikelets 2401
measures of grain 16807 So what is the total? 19607

2. Cats were revered by the Egyptians as sacred animals. If not for them, then the entire population of Egypt would be threatened with famine. Think why.

They exterminated rodents, the eternal enemies of the harvest, for which they were especially revered by the Egyptians.

3. Who did the graduates of the school in Ancient Egypt become? Where could the ability to multiply, add, subtract and divide be useful to them on a daily basis?

Scribes who then served at the court of the pharaohs, noble nobles, at temples and were mainly engaged in accounting for taxes and fees. Literacy opened the way to high government posts.

Task number 39. In your textbook, the sun god is named Amon-Ra. In other books, the same god is called differently - Amun-Ra. Do we know how to pronounce ancient Egyptian names correctly? If not, why not?

Most likely, we do not know, since there were no hieroglyphs for vowels in the ancient Egyptian script. All words were written only with consonants.

Task number 40. Solve the chainword "On the banks of the Nile".

1. The God of Darkness, whose appearance is reproduced by the Chineword ( Apop ). 2. The oldest writing material made from the Nile reed ( papyrus ). 3. A papyrus book rolled into a tube ( scroll ). 4. Stone pillar supporting the ceiling in the temple ( Column ). 5. Sacred bull with a white mark on the forehead ( Apis ). 6. A richly decorated coffin made of wood or stone ( sarcophagus ). 7. Son of Osiris, who defeated the evil Set ( Mountains ). 8. One of the names of the sun god ( Ra ). 9. Another name for the sun god ( Amon ). 10. Goddess of the sky ( Chickpea ). 11. The famous pharaoh conqueror ( Thutmose ). 12. A huge stone figure depicting a lion with a human head ( Sphinx ). 13. The number of small states that originally arose in Egypt ( Fourty ). 14. An animal in the guise of which the god Amon-Ra fights a fierce serpent every night ( cat ). 15. God of wisdom, who taught people to write ( That ). 16. Pharaoh, whose tomb archaeologists have found undisturbed ( Tutankhamun ). 17. Pharaoh's wife, whose sculptural portrait has survived to this day ( Nefertiti ). 18. The Egyptian letter icon ( hieroglyph ). 19. The word, which is called the rulers of Egypt ( Pharaoh ). 20. River in Egypt ( Nile ).

Task number 41. Solve the crossword puzzle "In Ancient Egypt".

If you solve the crossword correctly, then in the boxes outlined horizontally you will read the name of the French scientist who solved the mystery of hieroglyphs at the beginning of the 19th century.

Attention! Correct answers are indicated in brackets.
Vertically: 1. A special device with which the Egyptians watered high-lying gardens and orchards ( shaduf ). 2. Goddess of Truth ( Maat ). 3. The first capital of the Egyptian kingdom ( Memphis ). 4. A literate Egyptian in the service of the pharaoh or his noble ( scribe ). 5. Pharaoh, for whom the largest tomb was built ( Cheops ). 6. Particles of half-rotten plants and rocks remaining on the banks of the Nile after the spill ( silt ). 7. An area in Northern Egypt that looks like a huge triangle ( delta ). 8. One of the stone pillars that stood in front of the entrance to the temple ( obelisk ). 9. God of the dead with a jackal's head ( Anubis ).
Horizontal answer: Champollion.

Task number 42. Solve the crossword puzzle by remembering the words from the ancient Egyptian text "Teaching the Scribes to the Disciples." If you have forgotten this text, find it in the tutorial.

Identify which words are missing in the following passages from Teaching the Disciples from Scribes. Write these words in the cells of the crossword puzzle in the same number and case as they should be in the text.

Horizontally: 1. Be a scribe - he is released from work hoe ... 5. Read your book daily ... 7. Solve problems silently ... 8. Don't spend a single day in idleness ... 9. If you wander the streets, you will be beaten with a whip made of leather hippo ... 11. The monkey understands the words ... 13. The scribe will not be flogged rods .
Vertically: 2. You will walk in white clothes ... 3. Be a scribe to body yours was smooth. 4. Be a scribe - you won't carry baskets ... 6. I'm tired of repeating to you admonitions ... 7. Ears boy on his back. 10. They even teach lions but you do it your way. 12. I'll hit you hundred once.

Task number 43. Answer the questions.

Who do the Egyptians think spoke these words? To whom were they told?

1. I did not kill, I did not steal, I did not lie, I did not envy.

These are the words of the deceased, which he uttered in the face of Osiris at the trial in the kingdom of the dead.

2. Do not spend a single day in idleness, otherwise they will beat you. The boy's ears are on his back.

Teaching the scribes to their disciples.

3. You are like a pig devouring its own piglets.

God of the earth Geb. The Egyptians represented the stars as children of the sky goddess Nut and Hebe. Every morning Nut swallowed the stars, and Geb was angry with his wife, pronouncing these words.

4. I take the shortest route to Megiddo in order to suddenly attack the enemies.

Pharaoh Thutmose. Learning that the opponents had joined forces, Thutmose decided to take the shortest route through the gorge and caught the enemy by surprise.

5. The son of the sun invites his nobleman to return: you will not die in a foreign land. A stone tomb will be arranged for you.

The words of Pharaoh Senusret I, addressed to the nobleman Sinuhe, long years who lived in Syria.

Task number 44. Find errors.

One liar and braggart claimed to have visited Ancient Egypt with the help of a "time machine".

When I got to this country, - he told friends, - I learned that the Egyptians were in great grief. The Nile has not spilled for several years and is pretty shallow. All the rest of the rivers of Egypt could be wade ... The shipmen took me along the Nile to the first threshold. I paid generously, take off, took change - a handful of small coins and went down to the right bank. In this place, the largest of the pyramids was erected, in which, as everyone knows, Tutankhamun is buried. As soon as I headed for the pyramid, a downpour gushed out, and I had to hide from it in oak grove... After waiting out the rain, I began to look for the entrance to the pyramid. However, the Egyptians told me that the tomb of Tutankhamun had long been plundered and not a single thing survived ...
- Stop inventing, - the listeners interrupted the narrator, - you have never been to Ancient Egypt! There are a dozen historical mistakes in your story.

Describe these errors.

a) The Nile was flooded every year, b) the Nile is the only river in Egypt, c) there was no money in Ancient Egypt, as such, no coins were minted, d) the tomb of Tutankhamun was located in the Valley of the Kings west of Thebes, it is much to the north 1- th threshold, e) the largest pyramid in Egypt - Cheops and was located in the north near Memphis, f) Tutankhamun himself was almost unknown for a long time and the discovery of his tomb in 1922 - greatest discovery archeology, g) a downpour in southern Egypt is an extremely rare natural phenomenon and lasts only a few minutes, h) oak does not grow in Egypt, i) Tutankhamun's tomb was not plundered and has survived to our time in its original form, j) items from the tomb are now in museums around the world.

Task number 45. Come up with an ending for the tale.

In Ancient Egypt, the tale of the enchanted prince was created. Its end has not survived. Here is the beginning of this tale:

Once upon a time there was a Pharaoh. His son was born. This was the only and long-awaited son whom the pharaoh begged from the gods. But the prince is bewitched, and already at his birth the goddesses predict that he will die young either from a crocodile, or from a snake, or from a dog. Such is the fate that no one can change.
But the prince's parents want to outwit fate. They separated their son from all living things - they placed the boy in a large tower and assigned a faithful servant to him.
Years go by. The boy grows up and begins to take an interest in the world around him. Somehow he notices below some strange creature on four legs ... "It's a dog," the servant explains to the surprised child. "Let them bring me the same one!" - asks the prince. And he is given a puppy, which he raises in his tower.
But now the boy becomes a young man, and his parents are forced to explain to him why he lives alone, strictly guarded, in this tower. The prince convinces his father that fate is inevitable. And he lets him go on a long journey.
Accompanied by his faithful servant and a dog, the prince travels in a chariot to the country of Syria. There is also a beautiful princess living in a high tower. It will go to those who show heroic strength and jump to a height of 70 cubits directly into the window of the tower, from which the princess looks out.
No one succeeds, and only our hero makes a jump and gets to her. At first glance, they fell in love with each other. But the princess's father does not want to give his daughter in marriage to some unknown Egyptian. The fact is that the enchanted prince hid his origin and passed himself off as the son of a warrior who fled from his evil stepmother. But the princess does not want to hear about anyone else: "If this young man is taken away from me, I will not eat, I will not drink, I will die that very hour!" My father had to give in.
Young people got married. They are happy. But the princess began to notice that her husband was sometimes sad. And he reveals to her a terrible secret, says about the prediction of the goddesses: "I am doomed to three destinies - a crocodile, a snake, a dog." Then his wife said to him: "Order to kill your dog." He answered her: "No, I will not order to kill the dog, which I took as a puppy and raised."
The princess decides to prevent a terrible fate hanging over her husband, and she succeeds twice. The first time she saves him from a snake that crawled into the bedroom. Sensing the danger threatening the prince, the princess put a cup of milk in the bedroom, and the snake, before stinging the prince, pounced on the milk. Meanwhile, the princess woke up, called the servant for help, and together they crushed the reptile.
The newlyweds go to Egypt, and then the princess again rescues her husband - this time from the crocodile. And then the next day came ... "

At this point, the text on the papyrus breaks off. How do you think the fairy tale ended? Let in your answer the ending of the tale take place in Egypt. Remember that the young wife of the prince came to this country for the first time. What could strike her in the nature of Egypt? What buildings, what statues could the heroes of the fairy tale see? What kind of reception in the palace could their father-Pharaoh have given them? What did he look like? Finally, did the prince die or survived?

Once in Egypt, the princess was struck by the Nile, she had never seen such a big river. As a miracle she looked at the huge pyramids, at the formidable sphinx, as if guarding the peace of the dead pharaohs. She was struck by the majestic temples and splendor of the palaces of the pharaoh. The father happily accepted his son and his young wife. The next day, the prince went for a walk with his dog. "Are you capable of betraying me?" - asked the prince. Suddenly the dog bared its teeth and rushed at the prince. But the young wife then saved her husband by stabbing the dog with a knife. She was very smart and protected her husband. Several years passed in this way. The prediction began to be forgotten. One day an empty quarrel arose between the spouses and the wife pushed the prince away, he stumbled and, falling, hit his head on a stone. "You, who delivered me from three destinies ..." - he whispered and gave up his ghost.