Academism is the art of the “golden mean. European academic art of the 19th century Prerequisites for the formation of academicism in Europe and Russia
History of Russian culture. XIX century Yakovkina Natalia Ivanovna
§ 2. CLASSICISM AND "ACADEMISM" IN RUSSIAN PAINTING
The direction of classicism arose in Russian fine art, just as in literature and theater, in the second half of the 18th century, but unlike them, there was a longer period, covering the entire first half of the 19th century and fully coexisting with romanticism and sentimentalism.
In painting and sculpture, as well as in literature, adherents of classicism proclaimed antique art as a role model, from where they drew themes, plot situations, heroes. The main tendencies of classicism were also embodied in works of art: the assertion of the ideas of monarchical statehood, patriotism, devotion to the sovereign, the priority of public duty, overcoming personal interests and feelings in the name of duty to the country, the sovereign. In antique samples, artists saw examples human beauty and greatness. Painting and sculpture strived for the laconicism of the story, plastic clarity and beauty of form. At the same time, for them, as in other spheres of art, certain canons of artistic depiction were obligatory. So, choosing a plot from ancient mythology or the Bible, the artist built the composition in such a way that the main action was necessarily in the foreground. It was embodied in a group of figures, nude or dressed in spacious antique robes. The feelings and actions of the depicted persons were manifested in body movements, also conditional. For example, to express shame or sadness, the hero's head was recommended to be tilted down, if compassion was on one side, the command was to be raised up.
Each character in the picture personified a certain human quality - loyalty, tenderness, straightforwardness or deceit, courage, cruelty, etc. However, no matter what property this or that person was expressing, his figure and movements had to correspond to the ancient canons of beauty.
In the first decade of the 19th century, thanks to the patriotic upsurge caused by the Patriotic War of 1812, classicism became most widespread in Russian sculpture and painting. Ideological basis | classicism - the embodiment of sublime feelings and images in JI's works of art - was consonant with the public mood of that time. The idea of selfless service to the Motherland is embodied by artists in plots and models drawn from ancient and Russian history. Thus, based on the subject of Roman tradition, the artist Bruni created the painting "The Death of Camilla, Sister of Horace", which declares the idea of the criminality of love and pity in relation to the enemies of the fatherland. Numerous examples of high patriotism are drawn by artists from ancient Russian history. In 1804, the sculptor Martos, on his own initiative, began to work on the monument to Minin and Pozharsky. Only after graduation Patriotic War in 1818 the government decided to install it in Moscow on Red Square. It is curious that the news of this aroused a lively and, one might say, nationwide interest. Contemporaries noted that already during the transportation of the monument from St. Petersburg to Moscow through the canals of the Mariinsky system, crowds of people gathered along the banks and looked at the monument. There was an extraordinary gathering of people at the unveiling of the monument in Moscow. “Nearby shops, roofs of the Gostiny Dvor, the Kremlin towers were strewn with people wishing to enjoy this new and extraordinary spectacle”.
At the end of the Patriotic War, the young artist A. Ivanov, full of patriotic feelings (father of the famous author of the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People" A. A. Ivanov), a man of advanced views, creates the paintings "The Feat of a Young Kievite in 968" (1810) and "The Combat of Mstislav Daring with Rededey "(1812). During the course of the war, episodes of military events capture the imagination of artists and convince them that samples of military valor and heroic patriotism can be drawn not only from antiquity. In 1813, Demut-Malinovsky's sculpture "Russian Scovola" appears, praising the feat of the Russian peasant, who, being captivated by the French, who put a stamp on his hand, chopped it off in order to get rid of the shameful sign. The work was greeted with excitement by the public. At the same time, the conventionality of the classical artistic manner did not interfere with perception. The audience was not embarrassed by the fact that the "Russian Scsevola", like its antique prototype, was depicted with a naked torso, which not only did not correspond to everyday traditions, but also to the climate of Russia. By the way, the young Kievite in Ivanov's painting, dressed in a semblance of a light tunic, according to the classical canons forbidden. portray "ugly" postures and body movements, extremely graceful and effortlessly ran away from the enemy pursuit. This convention was perceived by contemporaries as a familiar symbolic designation of high civic virtues. Therefore, the works of Martos, Demut-Malinovsky and other artists, who were very popular at that time, marked the flourishing of classicism in Russian fine art.
However, from the second quarter of the 19th century, when in Russia after the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, a government reaction was established for a long time, the lofty civic ideas of classicism received a different, official rethinking in the spirit of the famous Uvarov triad - Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality. A vivid example of this new stage in classicistic fine art is the famous painting by Bruni, a venerable professor and then rector of the Academy of Arts - "The Brazen Serpent". The dramatic plot of the work is drawn by the author from the biblical history. The Israelites, led from captivity by Moses, murmured against God and were punished for this with a rain of serpents. Only those who bow before the figure of the Brazen Serpent could be saved from death. The picture depicts the moment when the Israelites, having learned about the Divine command, rushed to the statue, the healthy help the sick and the elderly to crawl to it, mothers stretch their children forward. And only one - who doubted and protested - lies defeated, struck by Divine punishment.
This is how the ideological essence of the work is revealed - any protest is condemned from above; only obedience and humility are pleasing to the kings of the earth and heaven.
Gradually, classicism, which has lost its high civic pathos, is decaying. With the growth of the social and democratic movement of the 1930s – 1940s, the constant appeal to antique samples, stubborn disregard for reality as a crude sphere unworthy of art looks more and more anachronistic. The conventions of classicistic works, which were previously perceived as a means of enhancing the ideological content, now, with the loss of the high civic spirit of the work, pierce the eyes of the audience. The lack of deep content cannot compensate for the beauty of the forms, the impeccability of the drawing, the clarity of the composition. Beautiful, but cold works of masters of this trend are losing popularity.
Classicism, which in Russian fine art exhausted its artistic and ideological possibilities in the second quarter of the 19th century, is expressed in the so-called academicism (it was highlighted by me - N. Ya.), the direction adopted by the Academy as the only art school.
Academism, conserving the usual classicistic forms, brought them to the level of an immutable law, while ignoring the civic height of the content. These principles formed the basis of the academic system of vocational training. At the same time, academicism became a legalized, "governmental" trend in the visual arts. The leading professors of the Academy are turning into fierce adherents of official art. They create works that promote official virtues, loyal feelings, such as, for example, Shebuev's painting "The Exploit of the Merchant Igolkin." It reproduces an episode of a legend that tells that the Russian merchant Igolkin during the Northern War was captured by the Swedes, being in captivity, heard how the Swedish sentries mock Peter I, rushed at them and at the cost of his life supported the prestige of his sovereign. Naturally, such works met with approval in the ruling circles. Their creators received new, well-paid orders, awards, and were nominated in every possible way. Bruni becomes rector of the Academy of Arts, chief procurement consultant works of art for the Hermitage and royal residences. F. Tolstoy - Vice-President of the Academy, its actual head. However, succeeding in everyday life, these masters are experiencing a severe creative crisis. Degradation marks the later work of Bruni, Martos, F. Tolstoy. And it is noteworthy that academicism did not give rise to a single significant artist to replace the outgoing luminaries. Epigony and imitation in artistic terms, official ideology as the ideological basis - these are the roots that should have nourished the art of academism. It is not surprising that this "tree" gave such pitiful shoots. At the same time, the creatively weaker this trend became, the more violent the opposition of the "academics" to everything new in art became.
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What is academicism?
In painting and sculpture, the emerging style, the main component of which is the intellectual, is considered to be academic or academic direction. Undoubtedly, within the framework of this style direction, the aesthetic principles determined by the canons should also be observed.
The academic trend in France, represented by the works of such representatives of academicism as Nicolas Poussin, Jacques Louis David, Antoine Gros, Jean Ingres, Alexander Cabanel, William Bouguereau, and others, originated in the 16th century. It did not last long in the state legislator, and already in the 17th century. was heavily supplanted by the Impressionists.
However, academism firmly secured its position in European countries, and then in Russia, and, despite the newly emerging styles, became a solid classical base of the fine arts when teaching young masters of painting and sculpture.
Prerequisites for the formation of academicism in Europe and Russia
The changes that arose in the Renaissance in the life of European society, the main principles of art of which were humanism, anthropocentrism, as well as the ability to widely disseminate through different types advanced thoughts and ideas, entailed changes in art itself, including in European painting.
- Changing attitudes towards artists: not artisans, but creators.
- Opening of the French Academy of Arts.
- The opening of art academies by patrons of European countries to improve the social status of artists and train them on the principles of painting of the Renaissance.
- Promotion and support of young talents by patrons of the arts.
Characteristic features of the academic style in art
Academic art involved careful planning, thinking through and working out the details of the future work. Most often, mythological, biblical and historical plots were taken as a substantive basis. Before writing the canvas, the artist previously performed a huge number of preparatory drawings - sketches. All the characters were idealized, but at the same time, the historically accurate setting, objects, clothing, etc., corresponding to the era, were necessarily preserved.
Particular attention was paid to the use of color: the entire gamut had to correspond to what really existed in life, special accuracy required the use of bright colors that were not recommended for use (only as an exception). The technique and features of the picture were also required to strictly adhere to the rules for superimposing chiaroscuro, depicting perspective and angles. These rules were defined as early as the Renaissance. In addition, the surface of the canvas should not consist of smears and roughness.
Academy of Three Noble Arts - the cradle of academic painting
This educational institution became the first institution in Russia that performed the same function as the French Academy in its time. The founder of the Academy of the Three Noble Arts, as it was then called, was Count Ivan Ivanovich Shuvalov, a man close to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna and fell into disgrace under Catherine II.
The three most famous arts meant painting, sculpture and architecture. This fact is reflected in the appearance of the building erected for the academy on the Universitetskaya embankment of the Neva according to the project of J. B. Vallin-Delamot and A. Kokorinov: the patroness of arts and crafts, the goddess Athena, sits on the dome, and three putti are located at her feet, just symbolizing the most famous arts. The first of these, of course, was painting.
The most famous masters of Europe taught and worked in the academy together with their students. In addition to basic theoretical knowledge, the students of the academy had the opportunity to observe the work of famous European masters and learn from them in practice.
In the process of training, young artists learned to write and draw from life, studied plastic anatomy, architectural graphics, etc. Upon graduation, all graduates performed competitive work on this topic, usually a mythological plot, in an academic manner. As a result of the competition, the most talented works were determined, their authors were awarded medals of various denominations, the highest of which gave the right to free continuation of studies in Europe.
Russian academics
It is customary to distinguish two stages in the academic direction of Western European painting: academicism of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries and the second half of the 19th century. Among the artists of the first period, F. Bruni, A. Ivanov and K. P. Bryullov are distinguished. Among the masters of the second period are the Itinerant artists, especially Konstantin Makovsky.
The main features of academicism of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. are considered:
- the elevation of the subject (mythological, ceremonial portrait, salon landscape);
- the high role of metaphoricity;
- versatility and versatility;
- high technical skill;
- scale and pomp.
In the second half of the 19th century, in the academism of painting, the list of these characteristics expanded due to:
- incorporating elements of romanticism and realism;
- using historical themes and local traditions.
Karl Pavlovich Bryullov - master of academic painting
Karl Bryullov stands out especially in the list of academic artists - the master who created the canvas that glorified the author's name for centuries - "The Last Day of Pompeii".
The fate of Karl Pavlovich Bryullo (va) from St. Petersburg is connected with the peculiarities of upbringing and family life. The fact that Karl's father and his brothers linked their lives with the Academy of Arts determined the further creative way a talented young man. He graduated from the academy with a gold medal. He became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Artists and thanks to this he was able to continue his education in Europe - in Italy. There he lived and worked for twelve years. After the execution of Demidov's private order for a large-scale canvas about the death of the city of Pompeii, he was able to terminate his relationship with society and become an independent artist.
Karl Bryullov lived for only 51 years. At the insistence of Nicholas I, he returned to Russia, married unhappily, and divorced a few months after his marriage. Initially accepted by the whole society of St. Petersburg as a genius and national hero after a scandalous marriage, he was also rejected by the whole society, was seriously ill and had to leave. He died in Rome, and remained, in fact, the genius of one picture. And this is even despite the fact that he created enough canvases that are of great importance to this day for academic painting of the 19th century.
Academicism in Russian art of the 19th century:
Art created in line with the Academy of Arts and keeping in touch with it. Academicism begins in the 1830s. this is a departmental art, based on the ex principles on which classicism was based. This is eclecticism, the influences of other trends are superimposed on it (Russian critical realism, symbolism ...)
Academy: develops standards for painting, tried to put the most perfect principles as a basis.
Protoacademism - 1830 - present 1850
Academicism - 1850-60s
Mature Academicism - 1870-80s
1890s-1900s - academicism (in the work of Vrubel) with the addition of different styles
Stage 1: Bryullov, Bruni, Basin
Perception of the currents of the romantic era
Academicism has become universal
Basin: 1. Socrates protects Alcibiades at the Battle of Potidae
Markov: 1. Fortune and the beggar
Zavyalov, Nef, Raev: Nef instilled an interest in nude
Tyranov, Moller, Orlov (students of Venetsianov)
Since the 1850s - the use of historical plots there is a turning point in academicism
Gospel stories, Russian history
The chamber antique genre replaces the ist in the painting of academism
Bronnikov, Vereshchagin, Flavitsky ("Christian Martyrs in the Colosseum)
Painting became a springboard for government changes (they wanted to return interest in ancient languages, history, etc.)
Semiradsky, Postnikov, Tomashevsky
At this time, it was very difficult for the Itinerants to make their way, but they convinced Alexander III and he carried out reforms in the Academy of Arts.
Some of the principles of academicism, artists of other currents still used
Academicism(fr. academisme) - a trend in European painting of the XVII-XIX centuries. Academic painting emerged during the development of art academies in Europe. The stylistic basis of academic painting at the beginning of the 19th century was classicism, in the second half of the 19th century - eclecticism.
Academicism grew up following the outer forms of classical art. Followers characterized this style as a reasoning over the art form of the ancient ancient world and the Renaissance. Academism helped to arrange objects in art education, replenished the traditions of ancient art, in which the image of nature was idealized, while compensating for the norm of beauty. Representatives of academicism include Jean Ingres, Alexander Cabanel, William Bouguereau in France and Fyodor Bruni,Alexandra Ivanova, Karla Bryullova in Russia. For Russian academism of the first half of the 19th century, sublime themes, a high metaphorical style, versatility, multi-figuredness and pomposity are characteristic. Biblical subjects, salon landscapes and ceremonial portraits were popular. While the subject matter of the paintings was limited, the works of the academics were distinguished by their high technical skill. Karl Bryullov, observing the academic canons in composition and painting technique, expanded the plot variations of his work beyond the canonical academicism. In the course of its development in the second half of the 19th century, Russian academic painting included elements of the romantic and realistic traditions. Academism as a method is present in the works of the majority of members peredvizhniki partnerships... Later, historicism, traditionalism and elements of realism.
Genre painting of the middle of the century (c. 1850-pp. 1860s)
The format of the pictures is getting smaller
Painting has become more suitable for museums and citizens, and not for palaces
The time of reforms, after the defeat in the Crimean War, the question of the liberation of serfs arose sharply
Everyday genre manifested itself in painting, graphics + newspaper graphics
Storytelling was especially important in genre painting
M.P. Klodt
Academic genre painter
1. The Sick Musician, 1859
2. The last spring, 1863
A genre of compassion, sentimental traits
A.F. Chernyshev
Wrote street scenes
Farewell (departure from the village)
N.G. Schilder
Took a lot from Fedotov (sepia 40s)
Temptation, 1856
The painting laid the foundation for the Tretyakov Gallery
A.M. Volkov
1. Interrupted learning
Edifying character
Sennaya square
Obzhorny row in St. Petersburg
IN AND. Jacobi
1. Halt of prisoners, 1861
The picture was considered the first on the plot of hard labor, but Shevchenko's sepia tones were earlier
Hopelessness in everything: in figures, color
Jesters at court
Ice house
Both very academic in style (late)
K.A. Trutovsky
1. Round dance in the Kursk province
N.V. Nevrev
1. Bargaining (scene from serf life from the recent past), 1866
Paintings on the wall were a popular hobby for that time.
2. Parent
THEM. Pryanishnikov
1. Jokers, Gostiny Dvor in Moscow
Public humiliation scene
V.V. Pikerev
1. An uneven marriage, 1862
A.L. Yushanov
1. Seeing off the chief, 1864
Only one painting received from this artist
Continuity of composition from Fedotov
Critical realism
Lead to an analytical view of the world, interest in economics
Genre painting to the fore
The format of the pictures is small
Spreading the ideas of the roar of the democrats (the question of the emancipation of the peasantry)
Events of 1881
Everyday life genre in satirical graphics, book illustrations
By the 19th century - the 20th century - the period of the accumulation of forces and the formation of a new art
Narrative
M.P. Klodt
1.a sick musician
2.the last spring
"Genre compassion"
A.F. Chernyshev
Street scenes
Organ grinder
Parting
N.G. Schilder
1. Temptation
Goes back to P.A. Fedotov, sepia scythe »
The beginning of the Tretyakov Gallery
A.M. Volkov
1. Sennaya Square.
2. Interrupted learning
Gleb Uspensky's story
IN AND. Jacobi
1. Halt of prisoners (T.G. Shevchenko was the first to create on this topic: sepia "Gypsy" and "Life of the Prodigal Son")
2. Jesters at court
K.A. Trutovsky
1. Provinces
N.V. Nevrev
1. Bargaining, 1866
2. Parent
THEM. Pryanishnikov
1. Jokers. Gostiny Dvor in Moscow
V.V, Kukerev
1. Unequal marriage, 1862
A.L. Yushanov
1. Seeing off the chief, 1864
Fedotovskaya irony, clarity, composition
Genre painters: the development of realistic art
Art criticism
A.G. Vereshchagin in the collection "Problems of the Development of Russian Art", 1971
The criticism is divided
Positive: Stasov
Delight in genre painting and the connection between the development of art and it
Negatives, those who linked the future of art with historical analysis: Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Mikhailov
"Notes on the previous article" - "Sovremennik" magazine 1858. Chernyshevsky's article is dedicated to A. Ivanov
"Contemporary" criticized Herzen's "Bell" for accusations
"Bell", "Polar Star"
After 1862-63 - change. The critical camp is "gone"
Mostly Stasov "Knight of Accusatory Painting"
The first way: accusatory household painting
But no one surpassed Fedotov
The second way: reality, the past, the present and the sprouts of the future, the art of great generalizations (it was in the 70s and 80s: Perov, Kramskoy, Surikov, Repin)
Since the 1940s, thanks to the merits of Gogol's "natural school", Russian literature has become a platform from which "sore issues of our time" are proclaimed, debated, and investigated. Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky - in literature, Russian theater - through Ostrovsky, Russian music - through the efforts of the "Mighty Handful", aesthetics - thanks to revolutionary democrats, above all Chernyshevsky, contributed to the establishment of the realistic method as the main one in the artistic culture of the middle and second half of the century.
In the second half of the 19th century, a critical attitude to reality, pronounced civic and moral positions, and an acute social orientation also became characteristic of painting, in which a new artistic system of vision was formed, expressed in the so-called critical realism. Art-sermon, art-reflection on moral problems in the spirit of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy - this is how almost all outstanding Russian painters of this time understood their tasks, people, as a rule, of extraordinary spiritual nobility, sincerely caring for the fate of the Fatherland. But there was a downside to this close connection with literature. Taking most often directly from it all those acute social problems that Russian society lived with at that time, the artists acted, in fact, not so much as exponents of these ideas, but as their direct illustrators, straightforward interpreters. The social side obscured from them purely pictorial, plastic tasks, and formal culture inevitably fell. As it is rightly noted, "illustrativeness ruined their painting."
Russian art of the mid-19th century
Academicism was formed (did not have a source for the formation of ideas, it was getting old)
30-60s - from the strengthening of the Nikolaev monarchy (the triad of autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality) to a revolutionary situation.
1864 - AH wanted to celebrate a century, but in 1863 - a riot of students
Ser. 19th century - the nobility changes, becomes bourgeois. The bourgeoisie wants nobility. The process of segmentation of the nobility and the bourgeoisie
Major's matchmaking. Fedotov P.A. 1848. Transmits the essence of the process
A.S. Pushkin "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow"
Baratynsky
Interest is shifting to the analysis of the psychology that surrounds life.
Depletion of the creative principles of classicism
The second wave of romanticism draws on the effects and conquests of realism
Critical realism has taken shape
Exotics, pseudo-romance ...
Time for academic effects
Polarization of thin phenomena (Ivanov "Messiah", Bryullov, Fyodor Bruni, Basin - painting, I.P. Vitali, P.K. Klodt - sculptor, P.A.Fedotov - founder of critical realism, Shevchenko, Agni too) Salamatkin
Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture
1857 - the beginning of the Tretyakov galleries
Art history education began - the formation of the Department of Art at Moscow State University (1857)
Departments of art in all universities (according to the charter)
1874 - Prakhov gave a lecture on the history of art in St. Petersburg
1864- Stroganov Museum
1865 - Chernyshevsky defended his dissertation on the topic "Aesthetic relations of art to reality."
The position of artists is humiliating
AX is monopoly
Pensionership 2/3 19th century
Paris banned until the 60s (doubts)
Gradually loses its meaning
The basis of thin politics is the leadership of Nicholas I
Astolier de Custine, 1839
1860- in AX female nude model
St. Petersburg artel of artists (1863-1870)
The first thin association created by artists
Prepared the creation of the Itinerants
November 9, 1863 - 14 competitors for the big medal refused and left the Academy of Arts, on the eve of its centenary. We wanted to write according to the actual program chosen.
"Riot of 14" (13 painters, one sculptor - V. Creighton)
I.N. Punin "Petersburg Artel" - it is written about them
Organized the first exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod in 1865
They took an order for anything, taught
- "Artel Thursdays"
Received guests (Repin, Antokolsky, Myasoedov, Chistyakov, etc.)
1871 - the first exhibition of the Itinerants
Thursdays have become an informal school
O.S. Sharp "Works, which reflected the century" - Petrov
About Kiprensky and Goethe - "Russian art .." - Turchin's article "Kiprensky in Fra and Germany"
In 1869 - Myasoyedov returned from abroad, where he studied the organization of exhibitions
K. 1869-1870 - draft charter of the Association of the Itinerants
The last third is "traveling" (but it is not)
Symbolism
objective realism to painterly realism
late academicism
"Academicism is eternal"
neo-romanticism
Vrubel, Levitan, Vasnetsov
Since 1861 - the broadest democratization
Alexander II weakened censorship
Military, zemstvo, judicial reform
Before 1863 - there were corporal punishment
Eliminated the third branch (secret police)
Wanderers: Myasoedov, Perov, Kramskoy
Editors of the first charter of artists
Ge "Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Al Peter in Monplaisir in Peterhof"
In Moscow + "I. Grozny »Antokolsky
11 of 47 paintings were bought by Tretyakov
2nd exhibition 1873 - Kramskoy "Christ in the desert", Perov "Dostoevsky"
1874 - AH tried again
The academic society existed until 1883
The Academy of Arts tried to organize its own itinerant exhibitions, but failed
Polenov, Repin, Surikov, Savitsky, Yaroshenko + came to the Itinerants
1880 (8th exhibition) - Vasnetsov "After the battle with the Polovtsy"
1881 (9th exhibition) - Surikov "The Morning of the Strelets' Execution"
1883 (11th exhibition) - Repin "Religious Procession"
1884 - "They Didn't Expect" Repin
1885 - Ivan the Terrible
1887 (15th exhibition) - Surikov "Boyarynya Morozova"
1890 - Ge "What is Truth"
1910 - Russian avant-garde (spoke out for 6 years)
Problems:
Replenishment in society
Board (guarded the hierarchy)
1894 - reform of the Academy of Arts
Itinerants come to power (Al III initiated)
Reform of the Academy of Arts 1894:
The reform consisted in a radical revision of the Academy's charter and a complete renewal of the staff of professors. The main blow was directed at the system of academic programs, against which the famous revolt of thirteen competitors broke out in 1863. Initially, it was supposed to completely abandon programs for overseas travel, but in the end they were restrained, leaving only the freedom to choose topics. The Academy turned into the highest artistic institution in charge of all state policy in the field of fine arts. Its role in art was to be similar to that of the Academy of Sciences in the scientific field. The Higher Art School was established at this Academy. The title of academician was retained, the title of professor was abolished in its former meaning of the title of merit and was retained only for the teachers of the school. A list of new academicians was compiled, which included all the prominent Itinerants who did not yet have this title. The old professors were to be dismissed "with a pension and a uniform", except for P.P. Chistyakov, and it was supposed to invite new persons, also from among the Itinerants. The following were outlined: Repin, Surikov, V. Vasnetsov, Polenov, Pryanishnikov, Vladimir Makovsky, Kuindzhi, Shishkin, Kiselev, horseman and battle painter Kovalevsky; besides the sculptors Beklemishev and Zalemann, the engraver Mate. Surikov, Vasnetsov, Polenov and Pryanishnikov categorically refused to move from Moscow to St. Petersburg, which is why their candidacies dropped out, all the rest were appointed professors and received state apartments and private workshops at the Academy. Teaching was divided into lower and higher. The first was reduced to two academic classes - the head and the full-scale, the second - to special workshops, the successful completion of which ended with the writing of a program picture on their own topic and, if successful, a trip abroad for three years. Plaster classes - head and figure - were destroyed; drew and painted only from living models. We wrote all day and drew in the evening. The medal system was abolished; only categories were given for drawings and sketches; those who received the best of them were transferred from the head to the full-scale, from the full-scale to the workshops of the leading professors. These transfers were not connected by any terms, and it was possible to graduate from the Academy in six or seven years and in two years. In addition to works from nature, sketches on their own themes were also submitted, for which categories were also put. Successful sketches were of great importance in translations. Along with these classes in the practice of drawing and painting, courses in art history, perspective, anatomy, etc. were included in the program. NS.
Finally, in 1894, a reform was carried out. Its active supporters and guides - Repin, Kuindzhi, Shishkin, V. Makovsky came to the Academy as teachers. The reform was based on the progressive idea that the Academy should become not only a school of craftsmanship, but also a school of creativity. The new professors - the leaders of the workshops, as it was assumed, were supposed to first of all contribute to the development of the creative individuality of the students. It was decided to provide students with greater freedom of creative searches, to give them more time for independent work. For this, the length of the academic year was reduced, which now ended not in October, as before, but in April. Something has been changed in the training system itself. In order to more actively develop the creative individuality of students, for example, the gypsum-shaped class for painters was abolished, it was left only for architects. The system of competitive examinations for a gold medal with a common theme, obligatory for everyone, was also canceled. Instead, students were given the right to write a picture for the exam on any free topic. The leadership of the creative pursuits passed to the council of professors. It included artists I.E. Repin, V.E. Makovsky and A.I. Kuindzhi, sculptor V.A. Beklemishev and engraver V.V. Mate. About sixty full members of the Academy of Arts were elected. Among them were artists V.M. Vasnetsov, V.I.Surikov, V.D. Polenov, sculptor M.M. Antokolsky, famous scientists - the historian of ancient Russian culture I.E. Zabelin, chemist D.I. Mendeleev, historian of Old Russian art N.P. Kondakov, founder picture gallery P.M. Tretyakov. Full members of the Academy had the right to attend the meetings of the Academy and take part in the discussion of the issues raised there. The title of honorary member of the Academy of Arts was given mainly to collectors. For example, the scientist P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, a geographer, collector, senator, member of the State Council, was an honorary member of the Academy.
Genre during the period of itinerant movement:
Since the 1870s, the peculiarity of the genre is that artists strive for an expanded display: the scale of paintings increases
Participants: Kramskoy, Ge, Perov, Maksimov, Savitsky, Myasoedov, Yaroshenko, Makovsky, Repin, Surikov, Savrasov, Shishkin, Kuindzhi and so on.
In the 70s, progressive democratic painting is gaining public recognition. She has her own critics - I.N. Kramskoy and V.V. Stasov and their collector - P.M. Tretyakov. The time is coming for the heyday of Russian democratic realism in the second half of the 19th century. At this time, in the center of the official school - the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts - a struggle was also brewing for the right of art to turn to real, real life, which in 1863 resulted in the so-called "revolt of the 14". A number of graduates of the Academy refused to paint a programmatic picture on one theme of the Scandinavian epic, when there are so many exciting modern problems around, and, without receiving permission to freely choose a topic, left the Academy, founding the "Petersburg Artel of Artists" (F. Zhuravlev, A. Korzukhin, K. . Makovsky, A. Morozov, A. Litovchenko and others). In the apartment of Kramskoy on the 17th line of Vasilievsky Island, they created something like a commune, like the one described in Chernyshevsky's novel, under whose influence almost all of the diverse intelligentsia was then influenced. The Artel did not last long. And soon the progressive artistic forces of Moscow and St. Petersburg united in the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (1870). These exhibitions were called traveling because they were staged not only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also in the provinces (sometimes in 20 cities during the year). It was like "going to the people" of artists. The partnership existed for over 50 years (until 1923). Each exhibition was a huge event in the life of a provincial city. Unlike "Artel", the Wanderers had a clear ideological program - to reflect life with all its acute social problems, in all its topicality. The art of the Itinerants was the expression of revolutionary democratic ideas in the domestic artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. The genre of everyday life in the best works of the Itinerants is devoid of any anecdotalism. The social orientation and high citizenship of the idea distinguish it in the European genre painting of the 19th century. The partnership was created on the initiative of Myasoedov, supported by Perov, Ge, Kramskoy, Savrasov, Shishkin, the Makovsky brothers and a number of other "founding members" who signed the first charter of the Partnership. In the 70s and 80s, they were joined by younger artists, including Repin, Surikov, Vasnetsov, Yaroshenko, Savitsky, Kasatkin and others. Since the mid-80s, Serov, Levitan, Polenov have taken part in exhibitions. The generation of "older" Wanderers was mainly of different ranks. social status... His worldview developed in the atmosphere of the 60s. The leader and theorist of itinerant movement was Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoy (1837–1887), who in 1863 led the “revolt of the 14”, a remarkable organizer and an outstanding art critic. For him, as well as for his fellow organizers, was characterized by an indestructible belief, primarily in the educational power of art, designed to form the civic ideals of the individual and improve it morally.
Non-state educational institution
higher professional education
"Russian-British Institute of Management" (NOUVPO RBIM)
Faculty of full-time (part-time) education
Department of Design
Direction (specialty) Environment design
COURSE WORK
On the topic: " 19th century European academic art»
Completed by: Student of group D-435
Kryazheva E.I.
Checked by: E.V. Konysheva,
candidate of pedagogical sciences,
Associate Professor of the Department of History of Foreign Countries
Chelyabinsk 2011
Introduction
Formation of academicism. School of Bologna - one of the schools of Italian painting
Bologna painting took a prominent place in Italian art already in the 14th century, distinguished by its sharp character and expression of images. But the term "Bologna School" is associated mainly with one of the trends in Italian painting during the formation and heyday of the Baroque.
The Bologna school arose after the founding of the Carracci brothers in Bologna around 1585 "Academy of those who entered the right path", where for the first time the doctrines of European academism and the forms of activity of future art academies were formed.
In the 19th century, academicism, headed by A. Canova in Italy, D. Ingres in France, F. A. Bruni in Russia, relying on the emasculated tradition of classicism, fought against romantics, realists and naturalists, but he himself perceived the external aspects of their methods, reborn into eclectic salon art
The study of nature was considered at the Bologna school a preparatory stage on the path to creating ideal images... The same goal was served by a strict system of rules of skill, artificially derived from the experience of the masters of the High Renaissance.
Artists of the Bologna School of the late 16th - 17th centuries. (Carracci, G. Reni, Domenichino, Guercino) performed mainly compositions on religious and mythological themes, bearing the stamp of idealization and often lush decorativeness.
The Bologna school played a dual role in the history of art: it contributed to the systematization of art education, its masters developed the types of altar paintings, monumental and decorative painting, “heroic” landscapes characteristic of the Baroque, and in the early period they sometimes showed sincerity of feeling and originality of design (incl. hours in a portrait and genre painting); but later the principles of the school, which spread in Italy (and later beyond its borders) and turned into dogma, gave rise to only cold abstraction and lifelessness in art.
Academism (French academisme) in the visual arts, a trend that developed in art academies of the 16-19 centuries. and based on dogmatic adherence to the external forms of classical art.
Academicism contributed to the systematization of art education, the consolidation of classical traditions, which they turned, however, into a system of "eternal" canons and prescriptions.
Considering modern reality unworthy of "high" art, academism opposed it with timeless and non-national norms of beauty, idealized images, plots far from reality (from ancient mythology, the Bible, ancient history), which was emphasized by the conventionality and abstractness of modeling, color and drawing, theatrical composition, gestures and poses.
Academicism arose at the end of the 16th century in Italy. The Bologna school, which developed the rules for imitating the art of antiquity and the High Renaissance, as well as French academicism of the second half of the 17th and 18th centuries, which mastered a number of principles and techniques of classicism, served as a model for many European and American art academies.
In the 19th century, academicism, relying on the emasculated tradition of classicism, fought against romantics, realists and naturalists, but he himself perceived the external aspects of their methods, reborn into an eclectic salon art.
Under the blows of realists and bourgeois-individualistic opposition, academicism disintegrated and only partially survived at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century in a number of countries, mainly in the renewed forms of neoclassicism.
The term "Academism" is also understood in a broad sense - like any canonization, turning into an immutable norm of the ideals and principles of the art of the past. In this sense, they say, for example, about the academicism of some schools of Hellenistic and ancient Roman sculpture (who canonized the legacy of the ancient Greek classics) or a number of modern artists who sought to revive the concepts of historically obsolete schools and trends.
Representatives of academicism include: Jean Ingres, Paul Delaroche, Alexander Cabanel, William Bouguereau, Jean Jerome, Jules Bastien-Lepage, Hans Makart, Mark Gleyre, Fyodor Bruni, Karl Bryullov, Alexander Ivanov, Timofey Neff, Konstantin Makovsky, Henryk Semiradsky
Academism - the art of the "golden mean"
The art of the 19th century as a whole, at first glance, seems to be well studied. A large amount of scientific literature is devoted to this period. Almost everyone major artists monographs have been written. Despite this, quite a few books have appeared recently, containing both studies of previously unknown factual material and new interpretations. The 1960-1970s in Europe and America were marked by a surge of interest in the culture of the 19th century.
Numerous exhibitions have taken place. The era of Romanticism turned out to be especially attractive with its blurred boundaries and different interpretations of the same artistic attitudes.
Out of oblivion, the previously rarely exhibited academic salon painting, which occupied in the history of art written in the twentieth century, the place allotted to it by the avant-garde - the place of the background, the inert painting tradition, which the new art fought against.
The development of interest in the art of the 19th century proceeded, as it were, in reverse: from the turn of the century, Art Nouveau - inward, to the middle of the century. The salon's recently despised art has come under scrutiny from both art historians and the general public. The tendency to shift emphasis from significant phenomena and first names to the background and the general process has continued in recent years.
A huge exhibition “Romantic years. French Painting 1815-1850 ”, unfolded in the Parisian Grand Palais in 1996, represented romanticism exclusively in its salon version.
The inclusion of previously ignored layers of art into the research orbit led to a conceptual revision of the entire artistic culture of the 19th century. Awareness of the need for a new look allowed the German researcher Zeitler back in the 1960s to title a volume on 19th century art, "The Unknown Century." The need to rehabilitate the 19th century academic salon art has been emphasized by many researchers.
Perhaps the main problem of 19th century art is academicism. The term academicism has no clear definition in the art literature and has to be used with caution.
The word "academicism" is often used to define two different artistic phenomena - academic classicism of the late 18th - early 19th century and academicism of the mid-second half of the 19th century.
For example, such a broad interpretation was given to the concept of academicism by I.E. Grabar. He saw the beginning of academicism as early as the 18th century in the Baroque era and traced its development to his time. Both of these directions really have a common basis, which is understood by the word academicism - namely, reliance on the classicist tradition.
Academicism of the 19th century, however, is a completely independent phenomenon. The beginning of the formation of academicism can be considered the end of the 1820s - 1830s. Alexander Benois was the first to note that historical moment when the stagnating academic classicism of A.I. Ivanova, A.E. Egorova, V.K. Shebueva received a new impulse for development in the form of an injection of romanticism.
According to Benoit: “K.P. Bryullov and F.A. Bruni poured new blood into the exhausted academicism that had dried up on the academic routine, and thus prolonged its existence for many years. "
The combination of elements of classicism and romanticism in the work of these artists reflected the emergence of academism as an independent phenomenon of the middle - second half of the 19th century. The revival of academic painting, which was "carried on their shoulders by two strong and devoted to her strong men", became possible due to the inclusion of elements of the new artistic system in its structure. Actually, one can speak about academicism from the moment when the classicist school began to use the achievements of such a direction alien to it as romanticism.
Romanticism did not compete with classicism as in France, but easily merged with it in academicism. Romanticism, like no other direction, was quickly adopted and assimilated by the general public as well. "The firstborn of democracy, he was the darling of the crowd."
By the 1830s, the romantic outlook and romantic stylistics were widespread in a slightly reduced form, adapted to the tastes of the public. According to A. Benois, "there was a spread of romantic fashion in the academic edition."
Thus, the essence of 19th century academicism is eclecticism. Academicism became the basis that was able to perceive and process all the changing stylistic tendencies of 19th century art. Eclecticism as a specific property of academism was noted by I. Grabar: "Thanks to its amazing elasticity, it takes on the most diverse forms - a real artistic werewolf."
With regard to the art of the mid-19th century, one can speak of academic romanticism, academic classicism, and academic realism.
At the same time, it is possible to trace the successive change of these tendencies. In the academicism of the 1820s, classical features predominate, in the 1830s and 1850s, romantic ones, and from the middle of the century, realistic tendencies began to prevail. A.N. Izergina wrote: “Bolshoi, perhaps one of the main problems of the entire 19th century, by no means only of romanticism, is the problem of the“ shadow ”that was thrown by all alternating trends in the form of salon-academic art.
In the mainstream of academicism, there was an approach to nature, characteristic of A.G. Venetsianov and his school. The classicistic roots of Venetsianov's work were noted by many researchers.
MM. Allenov showed how in the Venetian genre the opposition of “simple nature” and “graceful nature”, which constitutes the fundamental principle of the classicist way of thinking, was removed, but the Venetian genre does not contradict historical painting as “low” - “high”, but shows “high” in another , a more natural incarnation. "
The Venetian method did not contradict academicism. It is no coincidence that most of Venetsianov's students developed in line with general trends and at the end of the 1830s came to romantic academism, and then to naturalism, as, for example, S. Zaryanko.
In the 1850s, a very important for the subsequent development of art, the mastery of methods of realistic depiction of nature by academic painting took place, which was reflected in the portraits, in particular, of E. Plyushara, S. Zaryanko, N. Tyutryumov.
The absolutization of nature, a rigid fixation of the external appearance of the model, which replaced the idealization, which was the basis of the classicist school, did not completely supplant it.
In academism, imitation of a realistic depiction of nature and its idealization are combined. The academic way of interpreting nature in the mid-19th century can be defined as "idealized naturalism."
Elements of the eclectic stylistics of academicism arose in the works of academic painters of the 1820s and especially the 1830s and 40s, who worked at the junction of classicism and romanticism - in K. Bryullov and F. Bruni, due to the ambiguity of their artistic programs, in the open eclecticism of students and epigones K. Bryullov. However, in the minds of contemporaries, academicism as a style was not read at that time.
Any interpretation offered its own specific version of the interpretation of the image, destroyed the initial ambivalence of the style and took the work into the mainstream of one of the painting traditions - classic or romantic, although the eclecticism of this art was felt by contemporaries.
Alfred de Musset, who visited the Salon in 1836, wrote: “At first glance, the Salon presents such a variety, so different elements are brought together in it that one involuntarily wants to start with a general impression. What strikes first of all? We do not see anything homogeneous here - no common idea, no common roots, no schools, no connection between artists - neither in the subjects nor in the manner. Everyone stands apart. "
Critics have used many terms - not just "romanticism" and "classicism". In conversations about art, there are the words "realism", "naturalism", "academicism", replacing "classicism". The French critic Delecluse, considering the current situation, wrote about the amazing "elasticity of the spirit" inherent in this time.
But none of his contemporaries speaks of the combination of various trends. Moreover, artists and critics, as a rule, theoretically adhered to the views of one direction, although their work testified to eclecticism.
Very often biographers and researchers interpret the artist's views as a follower of a certain direction. And in accordance with this conviction, they build his image.
For example, in the monograph by E.N. Atsarkina, the image of Bryullov and his creative path are built on playing up the opposition of classicism and romanticism, and Bryullov is presented as an advanced artist, a fighter against the dying classicism.
While a more dispassionate analysis of the works of artists of the 1830s-40s allows one to get closer to understanding the essence of academicism in painting. E. Gordon writes: “The art of Bruni is the key to understanding such an important and in many ways still mysterious phenomenon as academicism of the 19th century. With great caution, using this term, erased from use and therefore indefinite, we note as the main property of academism its ability to "adapt" to the aesthetic ideal of the era, "grow" into styles and trends. This property, which is fully inherent in Bruni's painting, gave rise to his enrollment in romance. But the material itself resists such a classification ... Should we repeat the mistakes of contemporaries, attributing some definite idea to Bruni's works, or should we assume “that everyone is right,” that the possibility of different interpretations - depending on the interpreter's attitude - is provided for in the very nature of the phenomenon ”.
Academism in painting expressed itself most fully in a large genre, in a historical painting. The historical genre has traditionally been regarded by the Academy of Arts as the most important. The myth of the priority of the historical painting was so deeply rooted in the minds of the artists of the first half - mid-19th century that the romantics O. Kiprensky and K. Bryullov, whose greatest successes belong to the field of portraiture, constantly felt dissatisfaction due to the impossibility of expressing themselves in the "high genre" ...
Artists of the mid-second half of the century do not reflect on this topic. In the new academism, there was a decline in ideas about the genre hierarchy, which was finally destroyed in the second half of the century. Most of the artists received the title of academicians for portraits or fashionable subject compositions - F. Moller for "The Kiss", A. Tyranov for "Girl with a Tambourine".
Academism was a clear, rational system of rules that worked equally well in the portrait and in the grand genre. The tasks of the portrait are naturally perceived as less global.
In the late 1850s N.N. Ge, who studied at the Academy, wrote: "It is much easier to make a portrait, except for execution, nothing is required." However, the portrait not only prevailed quantitatively in the genre structure of the mid-19th century, but also reflected the most important trends of the era. This was the manifestation of the inertia of romanticism. The portrait was the only genre in Russian art in which romantic ideas were consistently embodied. The romantics transferred their high ideas about the human personality to the perception of a particular person.
Thus, academicism as an artistic phenomenon that combined the classicist, romantic and realistic traditions became the dominant trend in 19th century painting. He showed extraordinary vitality, having existed until today. This endurance of academicism is explained by its eclecticism, the ability to catch changes in artistic taste and adapt to them, without breaking with the classicist method.
The dominance of eclectic tastes was more evident in architecture. The term eclecticism refers to a large period in the history of architecture. In the form of eclecticism, a romantic outlook manifested itself in architecture. With the new architectural trend, the word eclecticism came into use.
“Our age is eclectic, in everything for it the characteristic features are a smart choice,” wrote N. Kukolnik, reviewing the newest buildings in St. Petersburg. Architectural historians find it difficult to define and delineate different periods in architecture from the second quarter to the middle of the 19th century. “An ever closer study of the artistic processes in Russian architecture in the second half of the 19th century has shown that the fundamental principles of architecture, which entered the specialized literature under the code name“ eclecticism, ”originated precisely in the era of romanticism under the undoubted influence of its artistic attitude.
At the same time, the signs of the architecture of the era of romanticism, while remaining rather vague, did not allow to clearly distinguish it from the subsequent era - the era of eclecticism, which made the periodization of the architecture of the 19th century very conditional, ”E.A. Borisov.
In recent years, the problem of academicism has attracted more and more attention of researchers all over the world. Thanks to numerous exhibitions and new research, a huge amount of factual material that had previously remained in the shadows was studied.
As a result, a problem was posed, which seems to be the main one for the art of the 19th century - the problem of academism as an independent stylistic trend and eclecticism as the style-forming principle of the era.
The attitude towards academic art of the 19th century has changed. However, it was not possible to develop clear criteria and definitions. The researchers noted that academicism remained in a sense a mystery, an elusive artistic phenomenon.
The task of conceptual revision of 19th century art was no less acute for Russian art historians. If Western art history and Russian pre-revolutionary criticism rejected the art of the academic salon from an aesthetic standpoint, then Soviet art mainly from a social standpoint.
The stylistic aspects of academism in the second quarter of the 19th century have not been sufficiently studied. Already for the critics of World of Art, who stood on the other side of the line dividing old and new, academic art of the mid - second half of the 19th century became a symbol of routine. A. Benois, N. Wrangel, A. Efros spoke out in the harshest tone about the "endlessly boring", in the words of N. Wrangel, academic portrait painters P. Shamshin, I. Makarov, N. Tyutryumov, T. Neffe. S.K. Zaryanko, the "traitor" of A.G. Venetsianov. Benoit wrote “... his licked portraits of the last period, reminiscent of enlarged and colored photographs, clearly indicate that he could not resist, alone, abandoned by everyone, in addition a dry and limited person, from the influence of general tastelessness. His whole will was reduced to some kind of real "photographing" of no matter what, without inner warmth, with completely unnecessary details, with a rough beat on the illusion. "
Democratic criticism was equally disdainful of academism. In many ways, a fair negative attitude towards academism not only made it impossible to develop objective assessments, but also created imbalances in our ideas about academic and non-academic art, which in fact constituted a very small part in the 19th century. N.N. Kovalenskaya, in her article on the pre-movement genre genre, analyzed the genre and ideological-thematic structure of Russian painting in the mid-19th century, from which it can be seen that socially oriented realistic painting accounted for only a small share. At the same time, Kovalenskaya rightly notes that "the new worldview had undoubted points of contact with academicism."
In the future, art historians proceeded from a completely opposite picture. Realism in painting had to defend its aesthetic ideals in a constant struggle against academicism. Itinerant movement, which developed in the struggle against the Academy, had much in common with academicism. N.N. Kovalenskaya: “But just as the new aesthetics, being the antithesis of the academic, was simultaneously connected with it dialectically in an objective attitude and in apprenticeship, so the new art, despite its revolutionary nature, had a number of successive ties with the Academy in composition, in the priority of drawing and in the tendency towards the predominance of man. " She also showed some forms of concession to the emerging realism of academic genre painting. The idea of a common basis for academism and realism was expressed in the early 1930s and in an article by L.A. Dinzes "Realism 60-80s." based on materials from the exhibition in the Russian Museum.
When talking about the use of realism in academic painting, Dinses uses the term “academic realism”. In 1934 I.V. Ginzburg was the first to formulate the idea that only an analysis of the degenerating academism can finally help to understand the complex relationships between academism and itinerant movement, their interaction and struggle.
Without an analysis of academicism, it is impossible to understand the earlier period: 1830-50s. In order to compose an objective picture of Russian art, it is necessary to reckon with the proportion of the distribution of artistic forces that actually existed in the middle and second half of the 19th century. Until recently, in our art history there was a generally recognized concept of the development of Russian realism in the 19th century, with established assessments of individual phenomena and their relationship.
Some concepts that make up the essence of academism were given a qualitative assessment. Academicism was reproached with the features that constituted its essence, for example, its eclecticism. The literature of recent decades on Russian academic art is scarce. The works of A.G. Vereshchagina and M.M. Rakova, dedicated to historical academic painting. However, these works retain a view of the art of the 19th century according to the genre scheme, so that academic painting is identified with historical picture par excellence.
In a book about historical painting of the 1860s, A.G. Vereshchagin, without defining the essence of academism, notes its main features: “However, the contradictions between classicism and romanticism were not antagonistic. This is noticeable in the works of Bryullov, Bruni and many others who have passed the classicist school of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. It was then that a tangle of contradictions began in their work, which each of them would unravel all their lives, in a difficult search for realistic imagery, not immediately and not without difficulty breaking the threads connecting with the traditions of classicism ”.
However, she believes that academic historical painting is still fundamentally opposite to realism and does not reveal the eclectic nature of academicism. In the early 1980s, monographs by A.G. Vereshchagina about F.A. Bruni and E.F. Petinova about P.V. Basin.
Opening the forgotten pages of the history of art, they also make a significant step in the study of the most important problem of 19th century art - academicism. The dissertation and articles of E.S. Gordon, in which the development of academic painting is presented as the evolution of an independent stylistic direction of the middle - second half of the 19th century, designated by the concept of academicism.
She made an attempt to define this concept more clearly, as a result of which the important idea was expressed that the property of academism to elude the definition of the researcher is an expression of its main quality, which consists in the implantation of all advanced painting trends, counterfeiting them, using them to gain popularity ... The exact formulations concerning the essence of academism are contained in a small but very capacious review by E. Gordon on books about Fyodor Bruni and Pyotr Basin.
Unfortunately, in the last decade, the attempt to understand the nature of academism has not advanced. And although the attitude towards academism has clearly changed, which was indirectly reflected in the views on various phenomena, this change did not find a place in the scientific literature.
Academicism, neither Western nor Russian, in contrast to Europe, in our art history has not aroused interest in itself. In European art histories in our presentation, it is simply omitted. In particular, in the book by N. Kalitina about the French portrait of the 19th century, the salon academic portrait is absent.
HELL. Chegodaev, who studied French art in the 19th century and devoted a large article to the French salon, treated him with the prejudice characteristic of all Russian art history of that time. But, despite the negative attitude towards "the boundless swampy lowlands of the artistic life of the then France", he nevertheless admits the presence in the salon academism of "a harmonious system of aesthetic ideas, traditions and principles."
Academicism of the 1830s-50s can be called “middle art” by analogy with the French art of the “golden mean”. This art is characterized by a number of stylistic components. Its middle is eclecticism, a position between different, and mutually exclusive, stylistic tendencies.
The French term "le juste milieu" - "golden mean" (on English language"The middle of the road") was introduced into the history of art by the French researcher Leon Rosenthal.
Most of the artists between 1820-1860, holding between obsolescent classicism and rebellious romanticism, were grouped by him under the code name "le juste milieu". These artists did not form groups with consistent principles, there were no leaders among them. The most famous masters were Paul Delaroche, Horace Vernet, but mainly numerous minor figures belonged to them.
The only thing that had in common between them was eclecticism - the position between different stylistic trends, as well as the desire to be understandable and in demand by the public.
The term had political analogies. Louis Philippe declared his intentions to keep the "golden mean", relying on moderation and laws, to balance between the claims of the parties. " In these words was formulated political principle middle classes - a compromise between radical monarchism and leftist republican views. The principle of compromise also prevailed in art.
In the review of the Salon of 1831, the basic principles of the “golden mean” school were characterized as follows: “conscientious drawing, but not reaching the Jansenism practiced by Ingres; effect, but on condition that not everything is sacrificed to him; color, but as close as possible to nature and not using strange tones that always turn the real into the fantastic; poetry, which does not necessarily need hell, graves, dreams and ugliness as an ideal. "
In relation to the Russian situation, all this is "too much". But if we discard this "French" redundancy, and leave only the essence of the matter, then it will be clear that the same words can be used to characterize the Russian painting of the Brullov movement - early academicism, which is primarily felt as "the art of the middle path."
The definition of "middle art" can cause many objections, firstly, because of the lack of precedents and, secondly, because it is really imprecise.
When talking about the portrait genre, accusations of inaccuracy can be avoided by using the expressions "fashionable portraitist" or "secular portraitist"; these words are more neutral, but apply only to the portrait and, ultimately, do not reflect the essence of the matter. The development of a more accurate conceptual apparatus is possible only in the process of mastering this material. It remains to be hoped that in the future, art historians will either find some other more accurate words, or get used to the existing ones, as happened with the “primitive” and its conceptual apparatus, the lack of development of which now almost raises no objections.
Now we can only talk about an approximate definition of the main historical, sociological and aesthetic parameters of this phenomenon. In justification, it can be noted that, for example, in French, artistic terms are not required to be semantic concreteness, in particular, the mentioned expression "le juste milieu" is incomprehensible without comments.
Even more strangely, the French designate the academic salon painting of the second half of the 19th century - “la peinture pompiers” - painting of firemen (helmets of ancient Greek heroes in the paintings of academicians were associated with firefighters' helmets). Moreover, the word pompier has received a new meaning - vulgar, banal.
Almost all the phenomena of the 19th century require clarification of concepts. The art of the 20th century questioned all the values of the previous century. This is one of the reasons that most of the concepts of 19th century art do not have clear definitions. Neither "academicism" nor "realism" has precise definitions; "Middle" and even "salon" art is difficult to isolate. Romanticism and Biedermeier do not have clearly defined categories and time boundaries.
The boundaries of both phenomena are vague, blurred, as well as their style is vague. Eclecticism and historicism in 19th century architecture have only recently received more or less clear definitions. And the point is not only insufficient attention to the culture of the mid-19th century by its researchers, but also the complexity of this seemingly prosperous, conformal, "bourgeois" time.
The eclecticism of the culture of the 19th century, the blurring of boundaries, style uncertainty, the ambiguity of artistic programs, gives the culture of the 19th century the ability to elude the definitions of researchers and makes it, according to many, difficult to comprehend.
Another important problem is the relationship between "average" art and Biedermeier. Already in the concepts themselves, an analogy is felt.
“Biedermann” (decent person), who gave the name to the period in German art, and “average” or “private person” in Russia are essentially the same thing.
Initially, Biedermeier meant the lifestyle of the petty bourgeoisie in Germany and Austria. Calmed down after the political storms and upheavals of the Napoleonic wars, Europe longed for peace, a calm and orderly life. “Burgess, cultivating its way of life, strove to build its ideas about life, its taste into a certain law, to extend its rules to all spheres of life. The time has come for the empire of a private person. "
Over the past ten years, the qualitative assessment of this period in European art has changed. Numerous exhibitions of Biedermeier art have taken place in major European museums. In 1997, a new exhibition of 19th century art opened in Vienna's Belvedere, in which the Biedermeier took center stage. Biedermeier became almost the main category that unites the art of the second third of the 19th century. More and more broad and versatile phenomena fall under the concept of Biedermeier.
In recent years, the concept of Biedermeier has been extended to many phenomena that are not directly related to art. Biedermeier is understood primarily as a "lifestyle", which includes not only the interior, applied art, but also the urban environment, public life, the relationship of a "private person" with public institutions, but also a broader outlook of the "average", "private" person in new living environment.
Romantics, opposing their "I" to the world around them, have won the right to personal artistic taste. In Biedermeier, the most ordinary "private person", the philistine, received the right to personal inclinations and personal taste. No matter how funny, ordinary, "bourgeois", "philistine" at first the preferences of Herr Biedermeier did not seem, no matter how the German poets who gave birth to them scoffed at them, their attention to this gentleman made a huge sense. Not only an exceptional romantic personality possessed a unique inner world, but every "average" person. In the characterization of Biedermeier, its outward signs prevail: researchers note the intimacy, intimacy of this art, its focus on secluded private life, on what reflected the existence of a “modest Biedermeier, who, content with his little room, a tiny garden, life in a place forgotten by God, managed to find the innocent joys of earthly life are in the fate of a modest teacher, a non-prestigious profession ”38. And this figurative impression, expressed in the name of the direction, almost overlaps its complex stylistic structure. A fairly wide range of phenomena belongs to the Biedermeier. In some books on German art, it is rather about the art of the time of Biedermeier in general. For example, P.F. Schmidt also includes some of the Nazarenes and "pure" romantics here.
The same point of view is shared by D.V. Sarabyanov: “In Germany, if Biedermeier does not cover everything, then in any case it comes into contact with all the main phenomena and trends of art in the 1920s and 1940s. Biedermeier researchers find a complex genre structure in it. Here there is a portrait, and an everyday painting, and a historical genre, and a landscape, and an urban view, and military scenes, and all sorts of animalistic experiments related to a military theme. Not to mention the fact that quite strong ties of the Biedermeier masters with the Nazarenes are discovered, and in turn some Nazarenes turn out to be "almost" Biedermeier masters. As you can see, German painting for three decades has one of the main problems that general concept, which is united by the Biedermeier category. " Basically, an early, unconscious academicism, Biedermeier does not form its own specific style, but unites different things in the post-romantic art of Germany and Austria.
Signs of academic art
We have already sufficiently found out that by academicism we should mean not only the creativity of art schools called academies, but a whole movement, which therefore received this name, because it found a life-giving source in the schools mentioned.
This current was so strong and so answered the whole category of requests in European culture four centuries, that it did not necessarily need artificial support of an artistic and pedagogical nature, but from itself gave rise to a well-known system of art education.
Depending on this, we can meet both artists who left the academy and do not possess the character of academism, as well as characteristically academic artists who developed outside the academy and developed extremely fruitful activities in such centers where they did not even think about the founding of schools. Sometimes it was precisely this kind of activity of artists of academic coloring that gave rise to the school, which continued to exist after the death of its creator.
Signs of academic art remain for us:
lack of direct life impressions,
the predominance of tradition (or, even more often, imaginary traditions, some kind of "superstition of art") over free creativity, the associated shyness of the concept and a tendency to use ready-made schemes
Finally, a characteristic of the academy is the attitude to everything that is most reverent and significant in life, as to some kind of "disorder." At the same time, an academic artist usually has the correct drawing and the ability to fold composition, and, conversely, in rare cases - beautiful color.
Among academics we meet spectacular virtuosos, people who, without hesitation, solve the tasks set to them, equilibrating on three or four ready-made formulas. These same artists often prove to be very useful decorators because they prioritized discipline and the uniformity and coordination of collective creativity.
Continuing our survey of academic art, we will find its representatives everywhere - in Italy, and this is quite understandable, because in a politically divided country, spiritual culture was subordinated to the same principles, dictated only by the church, which was slowly and gradually losing its power.
However, in Venice, Naples, Genoa and Milan, other art continued to exist in parallel. In Venice, the living art of Titian was too revered, and academicism here finally leaked out and came out only towards the end of the 19th century.
Naples and Sicily, under the scepter of the Spanish kings, became, as it were, Spanish provinces in an artistic sense, which means that more innocent religious ideals could live in them, which in turn refreshed the entire culture of these countries.
Genoa benefited from its commercial relations with the Netherlands; here the Roman, Florentine and Bolognese currents met and fought against the influences of Rubens, Van Dyck and even Rembrandt and often had to yield to these foreign elements.
Finally, the art of Milan, which, like Naples, became a semi-Spanish city and completely forgot about the graceful art of Leonardo and Luini, received some new strength and vigor.
When we move on to decorators, it is in these centers that we will find the best masters of murals, which, however, did not prevent the listed cities from providing a number of characteristic "academicians".
We will find the least academicians in Venice, and even those artists whom we would name here have to be quoted with a reservation, because even their work is not always distinguished by an academic character, and, on the contrary, the vitality of the great art of the Cinquecento is often reflected in it. Palma the Younger is sometimes boring, then ordinary, then, on the contrary, he manages to almost rise to the height of Tintoretto; in Liberia or Celesti, there are cold, sugary pictures in the taste of some Bolognese, but most of their works are rather vital in their sensuality; in particular, Liberi proved to be a brilliant decorator, and he played a role in the evolution of monumental painting; the master's painting in the Palazzo Ducale - "The Battle of the Dardanelles" - "withstands" even the neighborhood with the masterpieces of Tintoretto and Veronese. And Padovanino either repels with a certain pomp in the taste of Karacci, then seduces with his spontaneity, his thick, rich colors.
Artists of European academic art of the 19th century
Academic artists of the 19th century, especially William-Adolphe Bouguereau, were not only modern and kept pace with the main historical canvas of art, but also directly developed it. They labored at what would ultimately be considered the most important crossroads in history, when humanity, after countless generations of vassals and slaves, will throw off the chains and rebuild society on democratic foundations. They labored using their creative word in a newly found political philosophy.
Artists, unlike the writers and poets of those times, were not only misrepresented in school textbooks, but deliberately defamed in articles, catalogs, and even educational reference books and fiction.
Everything written at that time can be interpreted as mass propaganda of the leading modernists, clearly pursuing their own interests. The interests of modernists are far from great art, history, and traditional education. But we need to treat the next generation with a sense of responsibility.
The names of many of the great and accomplished artists of the time have been lost or underestimated. Only until the middle of the 19th century, outstanding or almost outstanding artists received an assessment of their work according to their merits, and rightfully entered the history of art.
The work of the leading artists of the 19th century ciphered the achievements of mankind and connected the intermediate links of the centuries. Human societies were ruled by emperors and kings, they were anointed to the throne by divine consent to a civilization based on the power of the law, where government is carried out according to the laws established by the ruler and with his consent.
William-Adolphe Bouguereau
William-Adolphe Bouguereau, French painter, the largest representative of academic salon painting. Born November 30, 1825 in the city of La Rochelle. Studied painting at the Royal School of Fine Arts. After graduating from school, he received the main prize - a trip to Italy. Upon his return from Rome, he spent some time painting frescoes in the style of the Italian Renaissance in the houses of the French bourgeoisie. Having collected the necessary capital, he finally devoted himself to his favorite business - academic painting.
Bouguereau's career as an academic painter was quite successful, the artist enjoyed the recognition and favor of critics and exhibited his paintings in the annual Parisian salons for more than fifty years. At the exhibitions of the Paris Salon in 1878 and 1885, he was awarded the highest award - a gold medal, as the best painter of the year in France.
William-Adolphe Bouguereau's paintings on historical, mythological, biblical and allegorical subjects were compositionally carefully built and painstakingly painted, down to the smallest detail.
The most famous canvases of the painter:
"Ecstasy of Psyche", 1844,
"Mercy", 1878,
"The Birth of Venus", 1879,
"Nymphs and Satyr", 1881,
"Youth of Bacchus", 1884,
Bouguereau also performed murals and portraits. Bouguereau opposed the exhibition of Impressionist works in Parisian salons, considering their paintings to be simply unfinished sketches.
After his death and the period of oblivion of his works, Bouguereau's work was appreciated by modern critics as a significant contribution to the development of the genre of academic painting. The main retrospective exhibition of Bouguereau's work opened in Paris in 1984, and then was shown in Montreal, Hartford and New York.
Bouguereau was one of the leading painters of his time
Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique
Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique (1780-1867), French painter and draftsman.
Ingres went down in the history of French painting primarily as an excellent portrait painter. Among the many portraits he painted, it is especially worth noting the portraits of the supplier of the imperial army Philibert Riviere, his wife and daughter Caroline, of which the latter is best known (all three - 1805); portraits of Napoleon - the first consul (1803-04) and the emperor (1806); Louis-François Bertin (Sr.), director of the Journal des débats (1832 G).
From 1796 he studied with Jacques Louis David in Paris. In 1806-1824 he worked in Italy, where he studied the art of the Renaissance and especially the work of Raphael.
In 1834-1841 he was director of the French Academy in Rome.
Ingres was the first artist to reduce the problem of art to the originality of artistic vision. That is why, despite the classical orientation, his painting attracted keen interest of the impressionists (Degas, Renoir), Cezanne, post-impressionists (in particular, Seurat), Picasso.
Ingres painted pictures on literary, mythological, historical subjects
"Jupiter and Thetis", 1811, Granet Museum, Aix-en-Provence;
"The Vow of Louis XIII", 1824, Cathedral in Montauban;
"The Apotheosis of Homer", 1827, Louvre, Paris.
Portraits characterized by the accuracy of observations and the utmost truthfulness of the psychological characteristics
“Portrait of L.F. Bertin ", 1832, Louvre, Paris.
Idealized and yet full of a keen sense of real beauty nude
"Bather Volpenson", 1808, Louvre, Paris
"Big Odalisque", 1814, Louvre, Paris.
Ingres's works, especially early ones, are marked by the classical harmony of the composition, a subtle sense of color, the harmony of a clear, light color, but the main role in his work was played by a flexible, plastically expressive linear drawing.
If Ingres' historical painting is traditional, then his magnificent portraits and sketches from nature are a valuable part of French artistic culture of the 19th century.
One of the first Ingres was able to feel and convey not only the peculiar appearance of many people of that time, but also the features of their characters - selfish calculation, callousness, prosaic personality in some, and kindness and spirituality in others.
Embossed shape, impeccable drawing, beauty of silhouettes define the style of Ingres' portraits. Accuracy of observation allows the artist to convey the demeanor and specific gesture of each person ("portrait of Philibert Riviere", 1805; "portrait of Madame Riviere", 1805, both paintings - Paris, Louvre; "portrait of Madame Devose", 1807, "portrait of Chantilly ", Condé Museum).
Ingres himself did not consider the portrait genre worthy of a real artist, although it was in the field of portraiture that he created his most significant works. Careful observation of nature and admiration for its perfect forms are associated with the artist's success in creating a number of poetic female images in the paintings "Big Odalisque" (1814, Paris, Louvre), "Source" (1820-1856, Paris, Louvre); in the last picture Ingres sought to embody the ideal of "eternal beauty".
Having finished in old age it started in early years work, Ingres confirmed his loyalty to youthful aspirations and the preserved sense of beauty.
If for Ingres, turning to antiquity consisted primarily of admiration for the ideal perfection of the strength and purity of the images of the high Greek classics, then numerous representatives of official art who considered themselves his followers flooded the Salons (exhibition halls) with "odalisques" and "frips", using antiquity only as a pretext for nude images female body.
Ingres's later work, with the cold abstraction of images characteristic of this period, had a significant impact on the development of academicism in French art of the 19th century.
Delaroche Paul
Paul Delaro ?w (French Paul Delaroche, real name Hippolyte; French Hippolyte; July 17, 1797, Paris - November 4, 1856) - the famous French historical painter, representative of academism.
He received his initial art education while studying with the painter Antoine Gro, visited Italy; worked in Paris.
Feeling at first an attraction to landscape painting, he studied it with Vatele, but soon passed from him to the historical painter K. Debord, and then worked for four years under the guidance of Baron Gros.
"Portrait of Peter I" (1838) first appeared before the public in the Paris Salon of 1822 with a painting that still strongly responded to the somewhat pompous manner of Gros, but already testified to the outstanding talent of the artist
In 1832, Delaroche had already acquired such fame that he was elected a member of the institute. The following year, he was promoted to professor at the Paris School of Fine Arts, in 1834 he went to Italy, where he married the painter's only daughter, O. Vernet, and spent three years.
In Delaroche's paintings, recreating dramatic episodes European history Children of Edward V, 1831, Louvre, Paris; "The Assassination of the Duke of Guise", 1834, Museum of Condé, Chantilly
The prosaic and everyday interpretation of a historical event, the desire for external plausibility of the situation, costumes and everyday details are combined with the amusement of romantic plots, idealization of the images of historical figures.
Delaroche also created large-scale murals depicting artists of the past at the School of Fine Arts in Paris "Hemicycles", 1837-1842.
A number of portraits and religious compositions. The Hermitage in St. Petersburg contains several paintings by Paul Delaroche, including:
"Cromwell at the tomb of King Charles I of England" (1849)
"Christian martyr of the times of persecution during the reign of Emperor Diocletian in the Tiber" (1853).
In subsequent works, exhibited in the salon of 1824, Delaroche is already largely free from the influence of his teacher and, in general, from the academic routine:
"The love of Filippo Lippi for his model-nun",
“The Cardinal Archbishop of Winchester interrogates Jeanne d Ark is in her dungeon "
"St. Vincent de Paul preaches a sermon in front of the court of Louis XII "
To completely get rid of which he succeeds in his further works:
"Death of President Duranty" (found in the conference room of the French Council of State),
"The Death of Queen Elizabeth of England" (at the Louvre Museum),
"Miss MacDonald gives aid to the last applicant after the Battle of Culoden, April 27, 1746" etc.
Having adhered to the new ideas of the head of the romantic school, Eugene Delacroix, guided by a bright mind and a subtle aesthetic sense, he implemented these ideas in his work with restraint, being careful not to exaggerate the drama of the scenes depicted, not being carried away by excessively harsh effects, deeply thinking about his compositions and intelligently using the excellently studied technical means. Delaroche's paintings on plots borrowed from English and French history, were met with unanimous praise from critics and soon became popular thanks to the publication in engravings and lithographs:
“Children of English. King Edward IV in the Tower of London ",
"The cardinal carries with him his captives Saint-Mars and de-Tu",
"Mazarin, dying among the courtiers and ladies",
“Cromwell in front of the coffin of Cor. Karl Stuart "(the first copy - in the Nimes Museum, repetition - in the Kushelevskaya gallery, in St. Petersburg. Academic artist),
Execution of Jane Gray
“Murder of hertz. Giza "
Upon his return in 1834 to Paris from Italy, he exhibited in the salon in 1837:
"Lord Stafforth going to execution"
"Karl Stewart, insulted by the Cromwellian soldiers"
"St. Cecilia "
And since then he no longer participated in public exhibitions, preferring to show his finished works art lovers in their studio.
In 1837 he began the main work of his life - a colossal wall painting (15 meters long and 4.5 meters wide), which occupies a semicircular platform in the assembly hall of the School of Fine Arts and, as a result, is known as "Semicircles" (Hémi cycle).
He presented here in a majestic multi-figured composition allegorical personifications of figurative arts, distributing award wreaths in the presence of a host of great artists of all peoples and times, from ancient times to the 17th century. Upon the completion (in 1841) of this monumental work, perfectly in harmony with the architecture of the hall, as much as possible corresponding to its purpose, distinguished by the beauty and diversity of the grouping, brilliance of colors and virtuosity of execution, Delaroche continued to work tirelessly, constantly improving and trying to get rid of the last traces of emphaz imposed on him by education.
At this time, he took themes for his paintings mainly from the sacred and church history, and after a second trip to Italy (in 1844) he painted scenes from local life and, finally, after the death of his wife (in 1845), he especially fell in love with tragic plots and those that express the struggle of great characters with an inexorable fate.
Wonderful works Delaroche for the last period of his activity can be considered:
"Descent from the Cross"
"The Mother of God during the procession of Christ to Calvary",
"The Mother of God at the Foot of the Cross"
"Return from Golgotha"
"Martyr of the times of Diocletian"
"Marie Antoinette after the announcement of her death sentence",
"The last goodbye of the Girondins",
"Napoleon at Fontainebleau"
the unfinished "Rock of St. Elena ".
Portraits:
"Portrait of Henrietta Sontag". 1831. Hermitage
Delaroche excellently painted portraits and immortalized with his brush many prominent people of his era, for example, Pope Gregory XVI, Guizot, Thiers, Changarnier, Remus, Pourtales, the singer Sontag and others. The best of his contemporary engravers: Reynolds, Prudon, F. Girard, Anriquel- Dupont, François, E. Girardet, Mercury and Calamatta considered it flattering to reproduce his paintings and portraits.
Pupils: Boissot, Alfred; Yebens, Adolf; Ernest Augustin Gendron
Bastien-Lepage Jules
The French painter Bastien-Lepage was born on November 1, 1848 in Danville, Lorraine. He studied with Alexander Cabanel, then from 1867 at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Regularly participated in exhibitions of the Salon and for the first time attracted the attention of critics as the creator of the painting "Spring Song", 1874.
Bastien-Lepage painted portraits, historical compositions "Vision of Jeanne d" Arc ", 1880, Metropolitan Museum of Art
But he is best known for his paintings with scenes from the life of Lorraine peasants. To enhance the lyrical expressiveness of images of people and nature, Bastien-Lepage
At school, he made friends with the future artist - realist, one-thinker Pascal Dagnan-Bouvet. After being seriously wounded during the German-French war of 1870, he returned to his native village.
In 1875, the work "Annonciation aux bergers" (l "Annonciation aux bergers) allowed him to become the second in the competition for the Rome Prize.
Often resorted to the open air "Haymaking", 1877, Louvre, Paris; "Countryside Love", 1882, State Museum fine arts, Moscow; "Flower Girl", 1882
His canvases are housed in the largest museums in the world: in Paris, London, New York, Melbourne, Philadelphia.
"Jeanne d Arc ", 1879, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
He did not have time to fully express his talent, as he died at the age of 36 in his workshop in Paris. At the burial site in Danville, where there was an orchard, his brother Émile Bastien designed and built a park (Parc des Rainettes).
Already a renowned architect, after the death of his brother, Emil became a landscape painter. In the churchyard there is a bronze monument to Bastien-Lepage by Auguste Rodin.
In the works of the artist, depicting in every detail the scene rural life, the simplicity and inexperience of the villagers' morals are praised with the sentimentality of this era.
In one of the halls of French painting of the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, there is a painting "Countryside Love" (1882) by Jules Bastien-Lepage. Once it was in the collection of S.M. Tretyakov. He collected with great love canvases of French masters of realistic landscape - Barbizon, the works of C. Corot and works of peasant artists in French painting in the last quarter of the 19th century - such as L. Lermitte, P.-A.-J. Dagnan-Bouvray and their recognized idol J. Bastien-Lepage. Artistic youth of Moscow was in a hurry to see Tretyakov on Prechistensky Boulevard - to see the "French". Among them were often still little known V. A. Serov and M. V. Nesterov. “Every Sunday I go there to watch Village Love,” admitted Serov.
Bastien-Lepage developed under the influence of two powerful talents of French art of the middle of the century - Millet and Courbet. A native of the peasants of Lorraine, who was interrupted by odd jobs during his studies, Bastien managed not to break away from his native origins, and they became the "Castal key" of his inspiration. True, he could not handle either the selfless selfless devotion of Millet, who (according to Rolland) “had a high and harsh understanding of reality,” or the heroic audacity of the Communard Courbet, but Bastien learned and developed some of the ideas of his predecessors in his art.
He visited and worked in various European countries, England, Algeria, but the most fruitful were sketches in his native village of Danwiller. Bastien's motto was "to accurately convey nature."
Painstaking work in the open air, the desire to capture the subtle color shades of the earth, foliage, sky, to convey the endless monotonous melody of peasant life, to shift the works and days of his heroes into quiet, pacified poetry - all this earned him a short, but rather bright glory. Bastien's paintings of the 70s - early 80s -
"Haymaking",
"Woman Picking Potatoes"
"Country Love"
"Evening in the village"
"Forge" and others - brought a stream of fresh air into the musty atmosphere of the Parisian Salon. They, of course, could not decisively change the alignment of artistic forces of the times of the Third Republic, which was dominated by the apologists of exhausted but aggressive academism - T. Couture, A. Cabanel, A. Bouguereau, etc .; and yet, undoubtedly, the activities of Bastien and the artists of his circle were in no small measure progressive.
Thematic, figurative-artistic, coloristic traditions of painting of the 40-60s-Barbizon, Corot, Millet-Bastien translates into a plan of greater psychological detailing of images, genre and everyday concreteness, taking into account certain plein-air innovations. He overcame the coloristic limitations of Millet, who achieved color harmony at the expense of a certain general brownish tone, and in general solved the problem of a consistent connection between man and the surrounding landscape environment, which Courbet did not succeed.
The heavy color of the Barbizonians is refined on his palette, approaching the natural sonority of color. But if you remember that next to him, but almost without intersecting, the impressionists worked, with much greater principled courage turned to the sun, the sky, the water shining with multi-colored reflections, the human body colored with colored reflexes, then the successes and achievements of Bastienne will seem much more modest, more compromising and more archaic. True, one quality of his art favorably distinguishes Bastien's painting from the painting of both his contemporaries-retrogrades and contemporaries-“revolutionaries”: he retained the type of a monumental two-piece painting by its nature.
By combining landscape and portrait, the artist deprived the everyday genre of a long-winded plot narrative, giving it the features of contemplation. Portraiture, in turn latently present in a specific characteristic, did not become psychologically self-sufficient.
All these problems were new more for Russian painting than for French. This is the reason for those high assessments, which now seem to be surprisingly immoderate, which aroused Bastien's art among Russian artists. In the 80s, our painting was at a crossroads. The traditions of great classical art have long degenerated into frightening academicism, the realistic aesthetics of itinerant movement was in crisis, and the trends of impressionism, symbolism, and modernity had not yet become stable and definite. The artists turned to the national and close - nature, the circle of friends - that "gratifying", where Valentin Serov, Mikhail Nesterov, members of the Abramtsevo circle rushed.
"Girl illuminated by the sun", "Girl with peaches" are largely generated by tasks common to the Russian painter and the French master. In 1889, Serov wrote to IS Ostroukhov from Paris: "In terms of art, I remain faithful to Bastien."
And for Nesterov, who, like Serov, visited the World Exhibition in Paris in 1889, Bastien's painting "The Vision of Jeanne d" Arc "shown there (where, in his words," the task of contemplation, inner vision is conveyed with supernatural power ") is a lot gave for his own "Vision to the youth Bartholomew."
The same Nesterov wrote about "Village Love" that "this picture, in its innermost, deep meaning, is more Russian than French."
His words could serve as an epigraph for some touching novella from the last years of Bastien's life, when the artist, dying of consumption, was overtaken by the enthusiastic appreciation of another Russian colleague. It was a young, and already sentenced to death from the same consumption, Maria Bashkirtseva.
Bastien's art illuminated her own creativity, and their friendship, which lasted for the last two years of the life of both (Maria died a month and a half earlier), sounds an elegiac-mournful accompaniment to their untimely death. But one should not think that even in this case, complicated by lyrical pathos, Bastien's influence was overwhelming: Bashkirtseva's art was stronger and more courageous, richer in searches, and she quickly enough, despite all her piety, realized the limitations of Bastien's artistic concept.
Subsequently, both Serov and Nesterov, these great and original masters, went so far from Bastien that his passion for him remained an insignificant episode in their work. (The influence of the art of Bastien-Lepage turned out to be quite extensive, affecting not only Russian, but also Swedish, Finnish, Hungarian, Italian artists.)
However, back in 1884, the sober I. N. Kramskoy characterized Bastien-Lepage as an "impossible lomac" and "an unenviable painter", subtly distinguishing in the emotional structure of his paintings a touch of unnatural, somewhat blissful sentimentality. And at the end of the century, Igor Grabar drew a line under this question, sternly remarking about the works of artists from the Bastien-Lepage circle: “in their workshops, strong works there is everything except one: an artistic impression! "
And finally, the modern researcher of French painting of the 19th century A.D. Chegodaev writes about them as "virtuous edifications and melodramas imbued with a piously lean Catholic spirit", leaving no doubt about the real place of this phenomenon in the history of European art.
Jerome Jean-Leon (1824-1904)
French painter and sculptor, famous for his paintings of a very diverse content, mainly depicting the life of the ancient world and the East.
Jean-Leon Gerome was born on May 11, 1824 in the family of a jeweler in the city of Vesoul in the Haute-Sona department. Jerome received his primary art education in hometown... In 1841, having arrived in Paris, he became an apprentice to Paul Delaroche, with whom he visited Italy in 1844, where he diligently studied drawing and painting from nature.
The first work of Jerome, which drew general attention to the artist, was a painting exhibited in the salon in 1847: "Young Greeks at the time of a cockfight" (Luxembourg Museum).
This canvas was followed by paintings: "Anacreon, forcing Bacchus and Cupid to dance" (1848) and "Greek Lupanar" (1851) - a scene in which one of the main features of the painter's many-sided talent was clearly expressed, namely his ability to soften the seductiveness of the plot by the strict processing of forms and, as it were, a cold attitude towards what is capable of arousing sensuality in the viewer. A similar ambiguous painting by Jean Léon Jerome appeared in the salon of 1853 under the innocent name "Idyll".
"Pool in a harem", 1876, Hermitage, St. Petersburg
"Sale of slaves in Rome", 1884, State Hermitage
All these reproductions of ancient Greek life, thanks to the originality of the artist's view of it and the skill of his technique, made him the leader of a special group among French painters - a group of so-called "neo-Greeks".
The painting "The Age of Augustus", executed by him in 1855, with life-size figures, can only be regarded as his unsuccessful excursion into the field of historical painting in the strict sense of the word.
An incomparably greater success was the painting "Russian Soldiers-Singers" - a scene based on sketches made during Jerome's travels in 1854 across Russia.
The artist's other paintings are also remarkable: the highly dramatic Duel after the Masquerade (1857, in the collection of paintings by the Duke of Omal and the Hermitage) and the Egyptian recruits escorted by Albanian soldiers in the desert (1861) that appeared after the artist's trip to the banks of the Nile.
Dividing his activities in this way between East, West and classical antiquity, Jerome, however, reaped the most abundant laurels in the area of the latter. From it are gleaned plots for his paintings that have become widely known:
"Assassination of Caesar"
"King Kandavl shows his beautiful wife Gyges"
"Gladiators in the circus greet Emperor Vitellius"
"Phryne before the Areopagus", 1861
"Augurs"
"Cleopatra at Caesar's" and some other canvases.
Having strengthened his already loud fame with these works, Jerome turned for some time again to the life of the modern East and wrote, among other things, pictures:
"Transporting a prisoner along the Nile", 1863,
"Turkish butcher in Jerusalem"
"Workers in Prayer", 1865,
"The tower of the Al-Essanein mosque, with the heads of the executed beys displayed on it", 1866,
"Arnauts Playing Chess" 1867.
Sometimes he also took on topics from French history, such as, for example:
"Louis XIV and Moliere", 1863
"Reception of the Siamese Embassy by Napoleon", 1865,
Since the 1870s, Jerome's creative ability has noticeably weakened, so that over the past decades, one can point to only three of his works that are quite worthy of the reputation he acquired:
Frederick the Great, 1874
"Gray Eminence", 1874,
"Muslim monk at the door of the mosque", 1876.
In all oriental genres famous artist the graceful and conscientious rendering of the climate, terrain, folk types and the slightest particulars of everyday life, studied by Jerome during his repeated visits to Egypt and Palestine, is striking; on the contrary, in the paintings of the painter of classical antiquity, we see not so much Greeks and Romans as people of modern times, Frenchwomen and French, acting out spicy scenes in antique costumes and among antique accessories.
Jerome's drawing is impeccably correct and worked out in every detail; writing - thorough, but not dry; the color is somewhat grayish, but extremely harmonious; the artist is especially masterful in lighting.
Recently, Jerome also tried his hand at sculpture. At the Paris World Exhibition of 1878, the artist presented sculptural groups: "Gladiator" and "Anacreon with Bacchus and Cupid."
Hans Makart
bologna school academism painting
(German Hans Makart; May 28, 1840 - October 3, 1884) - Austrian artist, representative of academism.
He painted large historical and allegorical compositions and portraits. During his lifetime he received wide recognition and had many admirers. His studio was the center of Viennese society in the years 1870-80.
The Viennese painter Hans Makart (1840 - 1884) became famous for the historical painting "Cleopatra", which was published by a well-known metropolitan magazine in connection with the onset of summer (in the painting, Cleopatra escapes the heat with an umbrella).
The artist is also known for other canvases on antique subjects, illustrations for Shakespeare and numerous portraits of high society ladies. Such a biography as his, could boast hundreds of other painters of the middle of the nineteenth century.
Since 1879 H. Makart - professor of historical painting at the Vienna Academy of Arts
Everyone's favorite.
Makart was also a very attractive person, and his work aroused genuine interest in Russia. We can say that this illustrious resident of Vienna was one of the most fashionable, one might say, cult figures in the artistic life of St. Petersburg. It was not for nothing that Makart was called the St. Petersburg ghost: the leader of the Vienna school of painting, like a ghost, was invisibly present in the workshops of St. Petersburg painters.
Hans Makart was born in 1840 - during the era of romanticism. Therefore, he was considered a romantically directed personality, giving the audience a lyrical mood. The emotional upbeat of his work won over visitors to art galleries.
Studied Makart at the Vienna Academy of Arts. And then he continued his studies in Munich - with the largest painter-academician Karl Piloti. And after that, until his death, he painted pictures on historical and mythological subjects.
The abundance of museum items in his workshop and the sheer scale of this huge workshop conquered everyone who entered this temple of art. Having died at the age of forty-four (in 1884), the artist lived a short life in which there were no external events, but only intense creative work.
Many talented artists and critics of the late nineteenth - early twentieth century puzzled over the secrets and secrets associated with the glory of the famous Austrian, but above all, over the fantastic popularity of Makart in St. Petersburg.
This fashion fad was all-encompassing and all-encompassing. It affected not only the painting itself, but also the design of the residential interior, costume and Jewelry.
Having seen enough of the reproductions of Makart's paintings (the originals were unavailable), Petersburgers sought to recreate the atmosphere seen on these canvases at home. And the secular ladies of the northern capital constantly sought to add various accessories to their appearance and the interior of the house, which would make them look like the heroines of the Viennese virtuoso.
In the genre "Home Alone"
The fact. that with the arrival of the artist Makart in Russian cultural life, women discovered a new and mysterious genre called "Alone at home" - a genre that allowed women to think about what it means to be alone with their own beauty, to see themselves in a mirror without strangers, abstracted not only from street noise or from communication with her husband and children, but in general from the whole world. And then the mysterious soul of beauty emerged from the mysterious looking glass, which at that moment no one bothered to appear.
Nothing foreshadowed the emergence of a wave of Makart's fashion in St. Petersburg. Many talented painters already worked in the city on the Neva, but for various reasons they did not become cult figures. It is strange that as an idol the creators chose an artist who had never been to Russia, had no friendship with Russian painters and was not at all interested in our country.
The painters of St. Petersburg were still looking towards Vienna. They dreamed of getting on an excursion to the huge Makart workshop, which became available for viewing during the artist's lifetime. Many Itinerants also strove to make such a pilgrimage. And at the same time, after all, no one specifically fueled interest in Viennese academism, so the fashion for this direction was simply nowhere to come from. And fashion nevertheless arose and was unusually strong.
At the end of the 19th century, the fashion for Makart's style took on fantastic proportions. There was no number of interiors in which ficuses in tubs coexisted with luxurious carpets and whole home galleries of paintings in gold frames.
The principle of abundance, proximity in one interior of various objects literally reigned on Makart's canvases. There were so many outlandish household items on these compositions! Shells and musical instruments, outlandish vessels and plaster reliefs, birdcages and a miracle of fashionable tricks of that era - the skin of a polar bear.
Huge bouquets of artificial flowers ("Makart bouquets"), palms in tubs, heavy draperies, plush curtains that introduced an "element of mystery", stuffed animals, a platform, a "throne chair" were considered indispensable accessories for such "material" interiors. The eclectic design of the residential interior, which spread in the second half of the 19th century, was called "Macartism", as an ironic name for fashion. The fashion for fake jewelry, furniture in rough pseudo-Renaissance, oriental and other neo-styles with an abundance of carving and gilding, musical instruments hanging on the walls, and exotic weapons are also associated with "Macartism".
The atrocities of the Bolsheviks
After October 1917, a large-scale campaign against bourgeois taste and style began. By this time, several portraits had appeared in aristocratic mansions. royal family written in Makart style.
As soon as the Bolsheviks learned that the best of the tsarist portraits were called worthy of the brush of Makart himself, hatred for the Viennese magician increased. The right of the portraits of the royal family to be exhibited even in the historical-revolutionary museums could not be officially recognized by the militant Bolsheviks. Not every functionary from culture could correctly pronounce the name Makart, but the desire to overthrow the old culture literally burst the Bolsheviks.
From 1918 on the streets of revolutionary Petrograd bonfires from old books with a gold edge were blazed. And the interior with an abundance of plants and carpets has become one of the symbols of the culture of the defeated classes to be destroyed. By the way, it was Makart's interior with a "constellation" of flowers and paintings that appeared in Soviet films about the Chekists as a symbol of a dying era.
It was rumored that the spirit of the "Makart style" possesses miraculous powers, and the interiors decorated in this style would not be threatened by Bolshevik actions: a hand would not be raised to requisition these paintings. The portraits were too beautiful to be destroyed or piled up in the basements of houses, as the Bolsheviks often did.
Fans of the "Makart style" were forced to obey the trends of the times and not mention their idol. They secretly kept postcards and reproductions of paintings by their favorite artist.
Petersburgers believed that hatred of the historical past was short-lived, that with time the ghosts of the past would return, and that the Viennese romantic would again be recognized and respected. They even said that Makart's canvases are able to protect themselves by emitting special energy.
But it is not only the good preservation of paintings in the style of Makart that catches the eye of researchers of this era. Specialists in art history secrets more than once drew attention to the unnatural nature and mysterious origin of Makart's fashion. Its sources have not been identified.
For example, for a long time there was not a single picture of the famous painter in the St. Petersburg museums, but there were only copies and imitations (it was only in 1920 that a little-known female portrait came from the State Museum Fund to the Hermitage). Moreover, in the 1880s - 1910s. Imitations of MacArthus were born in a "jamb", which miraculously resembled the originals. Even the lighting effects seemed to be carefully copied from the paintings of the famous Austrian.
The persecution of the philistine taste declared in Soviet times, which to a large extent affected the residential interior, delayed the return of Makart for a long time. They tried not to exhibit canvases in the bourgeois style in large museums; they could not be displayed in prominent places at exhibitions. But even during the years of the proletarian dictatorship, Petersburgers never ceased to be amazed at the kind of power that a foreign artist had over the culture of the city on the Neva.
Followers and imitators
Konstantin Egorovich Makovsky (1839 - 1915) was only a year older than the Viennese virtuoso and was rightfully considered a Russian Makart (even in Soviet times, the famous prose writer V.S. Pikul wrote about this, however, this comparison did not say anything to the Soviet reader, because there was nowhere see the works of the "Viennese ghost", with which K. Makovsky was compared).
There was so much in common between the portraits by the two artists that contemporaries were never tired of being amazed at this similarity. But Makart almost never painted group portraits, and Makovsky expanded the style of the Viennese virtuoso to the framework of a family group of two or three people. He often painted his wife, Yulia Makovskaya, and two children. Makovsky's works were sometimes difficult to distinguish from those of Makart, there is so much in common between two talented contemporary painters
Why did the works of Makart himself and his imitators sink so deeply into the hearts of the audience? There are very interesting hypotheses on this score.
So, for example, some scholars believe that the romantic energy of the artist was transferred to the paintings in a fantastic way. He tirelessly emphasized the role of household items in a residential interior, the special magical function of things. His heroines, as a rule, held various objects in their hands, often touched the bearskin on the floor with their hands (this gesture had some kind of magical ritual meaning). Stroking the bear skin (most often it was the skin of a polar bear) had a ritual character: the lady in the picture seemed to be talking to her room, telling her exquisite interior that she was satisfied with it and felt well. The dialogue of the lyrical heroine with her own apartment, the communication of a person with the material world is one of the most modern ideas in psychology.
It turns out that the Viennese artist foresaw these processes about a century and a half ago. In other words, the rooms from the point of view of Makart turned out to be charged with a certain special energy, giving the inhabitants of the dwelling new vitality ...
By the way, it was this special “energetic charge” that helped the interiors in Makart's taste to “survive” in the Soviet era.
Today the city’s historians will not be told by the address “6 Gorstkina Street” (now: Efimov Street). But in this house, in one of the apartments on the third floor, up to the eighties of the twentieth century, the residential interior in the Makart style was preserved. In this interior there was an original painting by K. Makovsky, and a ficus in a tub, and Art Nouveau lamps, as well as a whole collection of porcelain vases.
Also kept in this apartment was a miniature copy of Makart's panel "Five Senses". The apartment on Gorstkina Street was literally spared by fate and the interior survived the blockade safely (house number six on Gorstkina Street was not damaged). This is how this unique interior existed until the early 1980s.
Mark Gabriel Charles Glair
(fr. Marc Gabriel Charles Gleyre; May 2, 1806 - May 5, 1874) - Swiss artist and teacher, representative of academism.
Orphaned eight or nine years old, Charles Glair was taken by his uncle to Lyon and sent to a factory school. In the mid-1820s. he arrived in Paris and studied painting intensively for several years, then left France for almost ten years. Glair spent several years in Italy, where he became close, in particular, with Horace Vernet and Louis-Leopold Robert, and then went to Greece and further east, having visited Egypt, Lebanon, Syria.
Returning to Paris by the end of the 1830s, Glair began intensive work, and his first painting, which attracted attention, appeared in 1840 ("The Vision of St. John").
It was followed by "Evening", 1843 - a large-scale allegory that received a silver medal at the Paris exhibition and later known as "Lost Illusions".
Despite some success, Glair took little part in the future in competitive exhibitions. He was extremely demanding of himself, worked on paintings for a long time, but left in total, according to the posthumous catalog, 683 works - including sketches and drawings, among which, in particular, a portrait of Heine, used for engraving in the magazine "Revue des Deux Mondes" (April 1852).
Among the most significant works in Glair's legacy are paintings
"Earthly Paradise" (which Hippolyte Teng rave about)
Odysseus and Nausicaä
"The Prodigal Son" and other canvases on ancient and biblical subjects.
Almost as much as his own painting, Glair was known as a teacher, to whom Paul Delaroche in the mid-1840s. passed on to his students. At Glair's studio different time engaged Sisley, Renoir, Monet, Whistler and other outstanding artists.
Alexander Cabanel
(French Alexandre Cabanel; September 28, 1823, Montpellier - January 23, 1889, Paris) - French artist, representative of academism.
Nothing reflects the "psychology of the era" as aptly as popular culture. Half a century later, her idols are forgotten, but after another hundred years, the historian finds in their creations expensive material for reconstructing the mindsets and tastes of the time. In the 19th century, salon painting became the embodiment of common ideas about "high art", and one of the most striking manifestations of it in France was the work of Alexander Cabanel.
Cabanel was perhaps the most popular and renowned artist the era of the Second Empire (1852-1870).
A fashionable portraitist, an adored painter of Napoleon III and other European rulers, he went down in art history as a symbol of an outdated academic tradition that skillfully adapted to the requirements of the time.
Cabanel was the winner of many awards, a member of the French Academy, a professor at the School of Fine Arts, a member of the jury of all expositions of the official Salon. According to the caustic observation of a contemporary of Cabanel, "the silky skin and thin hands of his portraits were a constant source of admiration for ladies and irritation for artists."
The reason for the loud fame of Cabanel, a rather weak draftsman and a banal colorist, should be sought in the social reality that gave rise to the close appearance of creativity.
The type of painting chosen by the artist, as forbidden, was more in line with the lifestyle and claims of the "high society" of the Second Empire. And the very nature of the painting with its smooth colorful surface, masterly executed details and "sweet" color impressed the whole mass of spectators - regular visitors to the exhibitions in the Salon.
It makes us talk about Cabanel, and yet, not only his lifetime popularity, but also the vitality of the artistic phenomenon that he so fully expressed. Cabanel's instructive specimen helps open up the intriguing mystery of salon art.
The artist's biography developed successfully and happily. Born in 1823 on the Montpellier campus in the south of France, Cabanel was brought up in a traditional academic environment. Brought to Paris as a child, he entered the École des Beaux-Arts in the workshop of François Picot in 1840.
In 1845 he successfully completed the teaching movement vector and was awarded the Great Rome Prize for the painting "Christ before the Judges." Together with his friend, collector and connoisseur of antiquity A. Bruy, Cabanel settled in Rome, where his style was irrevocably formed.
The painting "The Death of Moses" brought by Cabanel from Rome was shown at the Salon in 1852 and brought its author the first exhibition award in an endless chain of medals and awards.
Cabanel's performance at the Paris Salon became, as it were, a prologue, a visiting card of the artistic life of the Second Empire. Later, the artist began to supply the court of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte with his splendor and luxury, the pursuit of pleasures and complete indifference to the means of achieving them, a pictorial "seasoning" in the form of illustrations of spicy or dramatic episodes of history and literature. Numerous more or less naked women, called upon to paint Sulamith, Ruth, Cleopatra, Francesca da Rimini or Desdemona in his works, depress the monotony of faces with a “burning gaze”, extended eyes, circled in shadows, cutesy gestures and an unnaturally pink tone of mannered curved seductiveness.
The properties of Cabanel's art appealed to the taste of high-profile customers. In 1855, in addition to the first medal at the World Exposition in 1855 for the painting "The Triumph of St. Louis", Cabanel was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor.
In 1864 he was promoted to officer, and in 1878 - to the commander of the order.
In 1863 he was elected a member of the Academy to the location previously occupied by J.-L. David, J.-J..Lebarbier and Horace Vernaud. In the same year 1863, which went down in the history of French art thanks to the famous Salon of the Outcast, where E. Manet's "Breakfast on the Grass" was demonstrated, Cabanel's official position as "the first painter of the empire" was further strengthened.
Napoleon III acquired for himself two paintings by Cabanel - "The Rape of a Nymph" (1860, Lille, Museum of Fine Arts) and the "nail" of the official Salon "The Birth of Venus" (1863, Paris, Louvre).
Thus, Cabanel's sluggish and anemic art, which, in the words of the critic, melted "in the scent of violets and roses", was given the status of a standard, an example of the prevailing taste and the highest achievement of modern painting.
Cabanel's mythological scenes, full of mannered bliss, deliberate grace and erotic ambiguity, recreate the aesthetic ideal of the era, its gravitation towards a "beautiful life."
The characters of Cabanel's antique plots resemble most of all the vicious and sensual nymphs of Clodion. The works of this French sculptor the end of the 18th century were spaciously known in the second half of the 19th century due to the spread a large number copies from his works and free interpretations of contemporary sculptors on the themes of Clodion (A.E. Carrie-Bellez, J.B. Klezanzhe).
Creativity Cabanel was not only and not so individual and local artistic phenomenon, as the embodiment of a certain principle. It was a type of art that was extremely common in the 19th century, designed for a common, social flavor, using tried and tested techniques to gain popularity.
Numerous idols of the century, the apostles of salon classicism A. Cabanel, V. Bouguereau, J. Enner, P. Baudry owned all historical styles and did not develop their own.
It is not for nothing that a contemporary wrote about one of these trendsetters of artistic fashion: “As a rule, everyone takes his paintings for copies from the works of various artists ... Nevertheless, the artist thrives, and his very imitative ability, the very absence of anything original, seems to contribute to his success ". The quality of pleasant mediocrity, guaranteeing a happy moment, was fully distinguished by the work of Alexander Cabanel.
With the establishment of the republic, Cabanel did not lose its glory. He was practically overwhelmed with orders, producing stereotypically exquisite female portraits:
"Portrait of Katharina Wolfe", 1876, New York, Metropolitan Museum) and images of the "fatal beauties" of the past ("Phaedra", Museum of Montpellier).
He acted no less successfully as a teacher, showing a certain liberality towards his students, among whom were J. Bastien-Lepage, B. Konstant, E. Moro, F. Cormon, A. Gervex.
Throughout his life, a privileged and caressing artist, Cabanel remained faithful to the techniques he had learned. His works are, as it were, outside of time. Their smooth enamel-like painting, cleverly composed composition (a compilation of popular examples of world art), careful elaboration of details, an affected stage gesture, "monotonous beauty" of their faces do not imply any internal evolution.
However, in spite of the conservatism of his own artistic method, "which, moreover, is not capable of embodying the banality of his ideas" (F. Basil), Cabanel occasionally showed a certain breadth of judgments. So, already in 1881, he, for many years, had a rude negative attitude towards E. Manet and the Impressionists, defended the "Portrait of Pertuise" by E. Manet, presented at the exhibition. "Gentlemen, among us there will not be, perhaps, four who could throw a head like this" - these words of the venerable and recognized master serve as an involuntary recognition of the decisive victory of the new trend in French art.
Conclusion
Academicism contributed to the systematization of art education, the consolidation of classical traditions.
Academicism helped the arrangement of objects in art education, embodied the traditions of ancient art, in which the image of nature was idealized, while compensating for the norm of beauty. Considering modern reality unworthy of "high" art, academism opposed it with timeless and non-national norms of beauty, idealized images, plots far from reality (from ancient mythology, the Bible, ancient history), which was emphasized by the conventionality and abstractness of modeling, color and drawing, theatrical composition, gestures and poses.
As a rule, the official direction in the noble and bourgeois states, academicism turned its idealistic aesthetics against the advanced national realistic art.
Starting from the middle of the 19th century, the system of values adopted in the academies of arts, far from real life, focused on ideal ideas about beauty, came into clear contradiction with the development of a living artistic process. This led to open protests from young democratically inclined artists, such as the "riot of fourteen" at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1863. Young people opposed the compulsory topics in academic practice for programs (diploma theses) that were supposed to be written in mythological, historical or biblical plots, ignoring the events of modern life as a subject unworthy of art.
It was during this period that the concept of "academicism" acquired a negative character, denoting a set of dogmatic methods and norms.
Under the blows of realists, including Russian Itinerants, and the bourgeois-individualist opposition, academicism disintegrated and was only partially preserved at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century in a number of countries, mainly in the renewed forms of neoclassicism.
Annex 1
Il 1. William-Adolphe Bouguereau "The Birth of Venus". 1879 g.
Il 2. William-Adolphe Bouguereau "The Repentance of Orestes". 1862 g.
Appendix 2
Il 3. William-Adolphe Bouguereau "Youth of Bacchus". 1884 g.
Il 4. William-Adolphe Bouguereau "Nymphs and Satyr". 1873 g.
Appendix 3
Il 5. William-Adolphe Bouguereau Il 6. William-Adolphe Bouguereau
"Ecstasy of Psyche". 1844 "Mercy". 1878 g.
Appendix 4
Il 7. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Portrait of Madame Riviere". 1805 g.
Il 8. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Portrait of Madame Senonne". 1814 g.
Appendix 5
Fig 9. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Big Odalisque". 1814 g.
Il 10. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Bather Volpenson". 1808 g.
Appendix 6
Fig 11. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Portrait of Philibert Riviera". 1805 g.
Fig 12. Ingres Jean Auguste Dominique "Jeanne d" Arc at the coronation of Charles VII. 1854
Appendix 7
Il 13. Delaroche Paul "Portrait of Peter". 1838 g.
Il 14. Delaroche Paul "The Death of Queen Elizabeth of England",
Appendix 8
Il 15. Delaroche Paul "Napoleon's Crossing the Alps".
Appendix 9
Il 16. Bastien-Lepage Jules "The Flower Girl". 1882 g.
Il 17. Bastien-Lepage Jules "Countryside Love". 1882 g.
Appendix 10
Il 18. Bastien-Lepage Jules "Jeanne d'Arc". 1879 g.
Il 19. Bastien-Lepage Jules "Haymaking". 1877 g.
Appendix 11
Il 20. Jerome Jean Leon "Sale of slaves in Rome". 1884 g.
Il 21. Jerome Jean Leon "Pool in a harem". 1876 g.
Appendix 12
Il. Hans Makart, "The Entry of Charles V"
Il. Hans Makart, "Ariadne's Triumph"
Appendix 13
Il. Hans Makart, "Summer", 1880-1881
Il. Hans Makart "The Lady at the Spinet"
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There are two views on academic painting. There is still heated debate among experts. The main difference between painting and drawing (graphics) is that painting uses complex colors. Linocut, for example, can contain several prints with different colors, but still remain graphics. Monochrome painting (grisaille) is also not considered painting in the academic sense, although it is a preparatory stage for real painting.
Ideally, a real painting should contain a full-fledged complex color scheme.
Standard instructional still life for painting class Requirements for academic painting: modeling of a form in tone and color, accurate reproduction of color balance, beautiful composition (location on the canvas), display of color and tonal nuances: reflexes, halftones, shadows, textures, an overall integral and harmonious scale. The image must be complete, whole, harmonious and correspond to the setting (still life or model). In the Russian classical school of painting, it is not customary to fantasize and go beyond what nature is.
The controversy stems from the fact that not every artist manages to deviate from the quality of dyed grisaille (similar to how black and white photographs were tinted before), and fill the picture with the play and power of color, which the Impressionists once discovered. Some artists are not given this by nature. Not all painters are interpreted in such a way, which does not prevent them from being quite successful graphic artists and illustrators.
Portrait by Valentin Serov, a recognized master of the Russian academic school of painting
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