A message about the culture of the 19th century. Russian culture of the XIX century. Development of Russian science

XIX century. occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. Russia has contributed to the world cultural fund wonderful works literature, painting, music. The rise of Russian culture was so great that it allows us to call this era the golden age of Russian culture.

The performance of the Decembrists in 1825 led to the emergence of the spirit of revolutionary transformations. Literature ranked first in terms of the degree of influence on Russian society reflecting different sides public life, contributed to the development of public consciousness. Magazines reflecting literary trends had a huge impact on social life different styles... Sentimentalism of N. Karamzin and V. Zhukovsky replaced the classicism of G. Derzhavin and advocated rapprochement literary language with spoken. After the war of 1812, romanticism came, responding to the mood in society and finding its expression in the ballad. The poem was the second form romantic literature... In it, reality was presented in a bifurcated form ("The Demon" by M. Lermontov). The lyrics of Pushkin, Baratynsky, Lermontov, Tyutchev became the highest achievement of Russian romanticism in literature. After the war of 1812. in society, ideas of patriotism, service to the Motherland, a sense of national identity were formed, which were reflected in the art of the first half of the XIX v. The historical genre has gained particular popularity, landscape painting became much more emotional, acquired a lively flavor: sunny, full of lively warmth works by S. Shchedrin, seascapes by I. Aivazovsky, small soulful landscapes in which the virgin Russian nature is glorified, I. Shishkin. In the second half of the XIX century. in painting, realism manifests itself, whose representatives tried to overcome the canons of academic classicism, which led to the emergence of a new direction - the "riot of thirteen". The sculpture still remained true to classicism, remaining associated with architectural creativity, gradually give preference to realistic directions: P. Klodt (sculpture of equestrian groups on the Anichkov bridge). Late classicism, prevailing in architecture, gradually gave its rights to eclecticism. The era of urban planning began. Based on the monuments of ancient Russian architecture, the building of the Historical Museum in Moscow (O. Sherwood), the Church of the Resurrection "on blood" in St. Petersburg (A. Parland) were built. By the end of the XIX century. Art Nouveau style began to appear.

Cultural process at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. received the name "decadence". The Italian writer F. Marineti founded Futurism in 1909, later a new Expressionist society "Blue Horseman", Dadaism, Audism, Cubism appeared. Styles and methods in the culture of the XX century .. deviate from the classical techniques artistic creation, their diversity is called modernism, which combined various creative understanding of the characteristics of the time of decadence. Realism, existing in parallel with modernism, manifested itself in different ways, but most vividly - as neorealism, especially in cinema (L. Visconti, M. Antonioni, R. Rossellini, St. Kramer, A. Kurosava, A. Vaida). The names of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, O. Wilde are associated with symbolism, which represents the decadent literature of the turn of the century. One of the leading literary trends in the middle of the XX century. is existentialism. How literary direction it originated in France (J. P. Sartre, A. Camus) and asserted "pure" unmotivated action, individualism, reflected the loneliness of man in an absurd world hostile to him. As a challenge to society, as a consistent destruction of the real image, which reflects the world by the usual means, the so-called abstractionism arose - an extreme form of modernism. Its origins are V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Klee and others. It was replaced in the 60s. came avant-garde, pop art and postmodernism.

The development of the economy and culture took place in Russia throughout the 19th century. in the conditions of preservation of autocracy (unlimited monarchy). The emperor belonged to all the fullness of the legislative and executive powers. At the beginning of the century, the Council of State and ministries were established. The government of Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825) carried out some liberal reforms before the Patriotic War of 1812. These include measures to develop the education system. This was the last period of the policy of "enlightened absolutism". Its essence is an attempt to adapt the autocratic-serf system to the requirements of our time. The ideology of "enlightened absolutism" focused on "enlightenment of minds" and "improvement of morals", softening of laws and religious tolerance. However, the limits of the reforms being carried out were narrow. The development of the education system, the encouragement of industry, the "patronage of the arts and sciences" - but all this is under the strict supervision of the bureaucracy and the police.

In the years 1811-1815. there was a turn towards reaction and mysticism. Militarism and protective tendencies came to the fore. The omnipotent temporary worker Arakcheev became their bearer. Military settlements emerge, designed to strengthen the military power of the empire at no special cost. Russia enters into the "Sacred Union" - a kind of "international" of monarchs who help each other in the struggle against the revolutionary movement. This policy aroused the discontent of the advanced part of the nobility, who created underground revolutionary organizations. Revolutionaries of the nobility dreamed of turning Russia into either a constitutional monarchy or a republic, abolishing serfdom... The movement ended in an unsuccessful uprising on December 14, 1825. The Decembrists were defeated and Nicholas I (1825-1855) came to the throne.

The policy of the new emperor, who did not trust the nobles and relied on the bureaucracy and the police, was reactionary. He suppressed the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. and helped defeat the Hungarian revolution (intervention of 1849). Individual reforms (financial, publication of the Code of Laws, improvement of the management of state peasants) were combined with ruthless suppression of the opposition. Militarism, bribery, red tape in the courts, lawlessness and arbitrariness - these are the features of the "Nikolaev system" that led the country to military defeat.

With the accession to the throne of Alexander II (1855-1881), the so-called. "thaw". The overdue transformations were discussed in the society, the Decembrists were amnestied, the rights of the press were expanded. In 1861 serfdom was abolished, and soon new reforms followed - the abolition of corporal punishment, the introduction of a jury, the establishment of elective local self-government (zemstvo). However, the "crowning of the building" of reforms, as the liberals called it, was not followed by the introduction of a constitution and parliament in Russia. From 1866 (an unsuccessful attempt on the emperor's life), the government turned towards reaction.

Meanwhile, among educated young people of different classes (the so-called commoners), the ideas of populism (socialism of N.G. Chernyshevsky, etc.) were becoming more widespread. Discontent grew and underground organizations arose. In 1874, the so-called. “Going to the people” is a propaganda movement. It failed. The people did not follow the socialists, but the police caught them. In response, the revolutionaries took the path of terror. The end of this path was the assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881.

The experience of the Patriotic War for the first time significantly brought the elite class closer to the common people, making the social gap between them for a time less significant than national priorities. V.G. Belinsky wrote about 1812 as about the era from which “began new life for Russia ”, seeing the meaning of these changes not only“ in external greatness and splendor ”, but above all in the internal development of“ civic consciousness and education ”in society. A new idea for Russia of the responsibility of the nobility to its people, which strengthened the influence of the socio-political European thought of the Enlightenment, created another cultural phenomenon of the 19th century - the Decembrist movement. Decembrism in Russia demonstrated to society a completely new type of Russian person, capable of challenging the arbitrariness of an oppressive government, and became a criterion for several generations noble honor, a moral basis for future social transformations.

It was the nobility that played the main role in the development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century, since mainly the nobles had favorable material and social conditions for education and artistic creation in this period. Nevertheless, the advanced Russian culture, represented mainly by nobles, objectively opposed class inequality, serfdom, autocratic and bureaucratic lawlessness. It is paradoxical that the giant leap in cultural development made by Russia in the 19th century took place against the backdrop of "belated" and largely inconsistent economic and political modernization.

The rise of Russian culture in the 19th century was caused by a number of circumstances:

○ Russian society was going through a period of radical transformation, the formation of national identity and the gradual democratization of public life. These changes are most intensely manifested in the second half of the 19th century, in the post-reform period, which set its own tasks for the country.

○ The specialization of various spheres of cultural activity is increasing, especially in science, where new areas of research appear, and at the same time, a close mutual influence of philosophy is established, and at the same time, a close mutual influence of philosophy and literature, literature and other types of art is established.

○ Modernizing the economy requires everything more competent, qualified specialists, a network of specialized educational institutions is developing, the base of bourgeois democratic culture is expanding.

○ But the burden of traditional relations remains strong and the bourgeois society in Russia in the 19th century has not yet taken shape. The great Russian culture fully reflected all the contradictions and painful conflicts of its time, most clearly manifested in creative activity Russian intelligentsia.

The beginning of the 19th century - a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. Patriotic War 1812 accelerated the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people, its consolidation, which largely determined the progress and achievements of Russian culture and science. A characteristic feature of this period is the democratization of culture, an increase in the number of its leaders from the underprivileged classes. The cultural upsurge was also facilitated by the policy of "enlightened absolutism" pursued by Alexander I. Under Alexander I, the system of primary, secondary and higher education was finally formed. The government paid much attention to the development of higher education. During the reign of Nicholas I, the schools became estates-isolated.

Russian science has achieved great success in these years. Naturalists I. A. Dvigubsky and I. Ye. Dyadkovsky argued that living beings inhabiting the Earth change over time, that all natural phenomena are subject to general laws development, physical and chemical processes. Doctor Dyadkovsky developed ideas about the leading role of the nervous system in the human body. KM Baer made a number of major discoveries in embryology. The great Russian surgeon N.I. Pirogov laid the foundation for military field surgery. In the Crimean War, for the first time, right on the battlefield, he applied anesthesia during an operation, used an immobile plaster cast to treat fractures. The opening of the Pulkovo Observatory in 1839 was of great importance for the development of astronomy. V early XIX v. the first source of electric current was invented. Chemist KG Kirchhoff discovered a catalytic reaction for the conversion of starch into sugar. The Baltic physicist and chemist KI D. Grotgus formulated the first theory of electrolysis and the law of photochemistry. Chemist GI Hess discovered the basic law of thermochemistry - the conservation of energy as applied to chemical processes. Chemist N.N. Zinin synthesized aniline, laid the foundation for the chemistry of paints. Chemist A.M.Butlerov created a theory of the chemical structure of matter. P. G. Sobolevsky and V. V. Lyubarsky made discoveries that laid the foundation for powder metallurgy.

A feature of the first half of the 19th century. was the rapid introduction of scientific and technical ideas into production. A characteristic phenomenon of the cultural life of Russia of this period was the revival of interest in historical science. Russia was becoming a great maritime power, new tasks arose before geographers. New islands were discovered in the Pacific and Arctic oceans, new information was obtained about the life of the peoples of Sakhalin and Kamchatka, and maps were compiled. Separate passage from Hawaii to Alaska completed. In 1821, during a trip around the world under the command of F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev, the greatest geographical discovery of the 19th century was made. - the sixth part of the world is open - Antarctica.

Literature in the first half of the 19th century becomes the leading area of ​​cultural and social life in Russia. It reflects progressive social ideas, pressing problems of life. It forms the national identity, refers to the historical past of the country. Since the 30s of the XIX century. realism is affirmed in Russian literature. The main principles of this ideological and aesthetic direction are the truthful reflection of objective reality; the truth of life, embodied by various artistic means; reproduction of typical characters in their typical circumstances. The number of newspapers and magazines increased sharply, although their circulation was small. Since 1838, Gubernskiye Vedomosti began to appear in each province. The official newspaper was Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti. In 1823-1825. As in literature, in the theater in the 1920s and 1930s, classicism and sentimentalism were pushed aside by romanticism. M.S.Schepkin, a reformer of Russian acting art, is rightfully considered the founder of realism on the Russian stage. It is with him that the formation of a unified direction and art of stage design begins. His satirical roles - Famusov and Gorodnichy - had a social sound. All the work of the great actor was associated with the Maly Theater, which his contemporaries called the second Moscow University.

Russian music of this period is characterized by an appeal to folk melody and national themes. The works of composers A. A. Alyabyev and A. E. Varlamov, especially their romances, were very popular. A. Verstovsky created the talented opera "Askold's Grave". Pushkin's plot formed the basis of AS Dargomyzhsky's opera "Mermaid". But truly national music was created by the great MI Glinka, who wrote many romances, songs, the Kamarinskaya symphonic play. His operas A Life for the Tsar and Ruslan and Lyudmila became true masterpieces. Glinka's works are realistic, deeply popular. The composer himself asserted that "the people themselves create music, and we only arrange it."

In painting, there is a growing interest of artists in the personality of a person, in life. ordinary people, not just gods and kings. A gradual departure from academism, the center of which was the Academy of Arts, is planned. K.P.Bryullov was an outstanding representative of the academic school of this period. In his painting "The Last Day of Pompeii" the artist showed the heroism, dignity and greatness of ordinary people in a natural disaster. Bryullov was also a brilliant master of ceremonial and psychological portraiture.

30-50s - the period of decline of Russian classicism in architecture, the period of eclecticism (mixing of styles) begins. An example is the buildings of the New Hermitage, the Nikolaevsky and Mariinsky palaces in St. Petersburg; here are used the modern Greek style, baroque, renaissance. In Moscow, the creator of the eclectic Russian-Byzantine style, K.A.Ton, built the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armory. For more than 40 years, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built on the banks of the Moskva River in honor of the deliverance of Russia from the Napoleonic invasion. In 1931, the temple was destroyed by the Bolsheviks, and its restoration began only in 1994.

First half of the 19th century was marked by significant progress in Russian culture, accompanied by the development of education, science, literature and art. It reflected both the growth of self-awareness of the people and the new democratic principles that were taking hold in Russian life during those years. Cultural influence more and more penetrated into the most diverse strata of society, coming into close contact with reality and meeting the practical requirements of social life.

The creativity of N.M. Karamzin played an important role in the development of the Russian literary language (Poor Liza).earlier work of A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, N.A.Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev.

In Russian painting, the everyday plot is becoming popular.

One of the first to turn to him was A.G. Venetsianov, depicting pictures from the life of the peasants. Paintings by P.A. Fedotov ("The Fresh Cavalier", "The Major's Matchmaking") were notable for their realism and were of a satirical nature.

The canvases of K.P. Bryulov "The Last Day of Pompeii" and A.A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People".

First half of the 19th century in architecture became the heyday of classicism. A characteristic feature is the creation of large ensembles. This was especially evident in St. Petersburg. Architect K.I. Rossi (General Staff building) and A.A. Montferrand (Alexander Column), the decoration of the Palace Square was completed. The building of the Senate and Synod (K.I. Rossi), St. Isaac's Cathedral (A.A. Montferrand) formed the ensemble of the Senate Square. A.N. Voronikhin erected the Kazan Cathedral, A.D. Zakharov - the Admiralty building. O.I. Bove (Theater Square ensemble, Manege building), D.I. Gilarda (reconstruction of the building of Moscow University).

Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century reflected complex contradictory processes taking place in society.

The 60s and 70s are usually called the "golden age" of Russian chemistry. An outstanding contribution to world science was made by A.M. Butlerov (work in the field of studying the chemical composition and structure of organic bodies), D.I. Mendeleev (the discovery of the periodic table, work in various fields of knowledge).

A.G. Stoletov (study of photoelectric phenomena), P.N. Yablochkov (inventor of the arc lamp, "Yablochkov's candles"), A.N. Lodygin (creation of incandescent lamps), A.S. Popov (invention radio receiver in 1895).

A.F. Mozhaisky successfully worked in the field of aircraft construction, K.E. Tsiolkovsky was engaged in research in the field of airplane construction, aerodynamics, rocket engines.

In the post-reform years, Russian literature flourished critical realism... At this time, L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.A.Goncharov, A.E.Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.P. Chekhov wrote. The heights of Russian poetry in these years were the work of the poet-democrat N.A. Nekrasov, subtle lyricists F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Fet, A.N. Maikov. A whole epoch in the history of Russian theater was made up of plays by A.N. Ostrovsky. Leading drama theaters Russia was at that time the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg.

Russian musical culture developed national traditions. Innovation and democracy distinguished a large group of composers who created a creative association ("mighty handful"), the ideological inspirer of which was the famous critic V.V. Stasov. This association included L.P. Mussorgsky, A.P. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, Ts.A. Cui, M.A. Balakirev.

Symphonies, operas, ballets, musical pieces by the greatest Russian composer PI Tchaikovsky (Swan Lake, Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty) have become world famous.

The canvases of the famous Russian artist I.E. Repin ("Barge Haulers on the Volga", "Religious Procession in Kursk Province", "Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan", etc.), paintings by V.I.Surikov, V.I. M.Vasnetsov, V.V. Vereshchagin.

The culture of Russia in the 19th century is unique. This is a time of unprecedented flowering of all types of art. This is the time of new, even more progressive discoveries. This is the time when creativity becomes closer to the people. This is the time, the beginning of which is considered the "golden age" of Russian culture.

Literature and journalism.
Everyone who studied at school is familiar with such surnames as A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Yu. Lermontov, I. S. Turgenev, N. V. Gogol, F. M. Dostoevsky and many others ... They all wrote in the 19th century.
A significant role at this time also belonged to newspapers and magazines, of which there were a lot. Some of them were mouthpieces for various political forces (Sovremennik, Vestnik Evropy, Moskovskie vedomosti, Otechestvennye zapiski, etc.)

Architecture.
In the first half of the century, late classicism or Empire style prevailed. The largest works in this style were created by architects A. Voronikhin (Kazan Cathedral), A. Zakharov (Admiralty), K. Rossi ( Alexandrinsky theater), O. Bove ( The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow) and O. Montferrand ( Saint Isaac's Cathedral).
The second half was remembered for the spread of eclecticism (mixing of styles) and pseudo-Russian style, represented by such monuments as Moscow Historical Museum(V. Sherwood), Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood (A. Parland).

Sculpture.
At the beginning of the century, work began on the monument to Minin and Pozharsky, and in 1818 I. Martos finished his work. Famous sculptors of that time were also: P. Klodt, M. Antokolsky, P. Trubetskoy and S. Konenkov. In addition, A. Opekushin created a monument to Alexander Pushkin in 1880 in Moscow.

Painting.
In painting at the beginning of the century, the style was replaced: from classicism to romanticism. Portraits of O. Kiprensky and V. Tropinin, some of K. Bryullov's works are classified as romantic art. A huge amount of work has also been invested in the painting by A. Ivanov "The Appearance of Christ to the People." In the work of A. Venetsianov, the genre of everyday life begins, which finds its continuation in the paintings of P. Fyodorov, but more in a satirical form.
In the next half century, the incriminating depiction of reality becomes the main thing. This theme is shown in the paintings of V. Perov. He was also a wonderful portrait painter. At the same time, there is a separation of a number of artists from academic art, and in 1870 the Association of Mobile art exhibitions... It included I. Repin, V. Vasnetsov, I. Aivazovsky, A. Savrasov, I. Levitan, V. Surikov, I. Shishkin, and other brilliant creators. I. Kramskoy was considered the head of the association.

Theater and music.
The main dramatic theaters of that time were considered to be Alexandrinsky in St. Petersburg and Maly in Moscow. The great actors who shone on their stages were P. Mochalov, M. Shchepkin, M. Ermolova, P. Strepetova. In 1898, the Moscow Art theater(creators K. Stanislavsky and V. Nemirovich-Danchenko).
In music, M. Glinka left behind a brilliant legacy - the operas "Ivan Susanin" and "Ruslan and Lyudmila". The traditions laid down by him were developed further by composers, who in 1862 organized “ Mighty bunch". They were M, Balakirev, M. Mussorgsky, A. Borodin, Ts. Cui and N. Rimsky-Korsakov. In the second half of the 19th century. P. Tchaikovsky worked. Surely, this composer is known by many, at least for his ballet "Swan Lake".

Education and Science.
According to the reform of 1803 -1804 on the territory of the empire, 6 educational districts were allocated, the centers of which were universities, and some of them had just opened their doors. During the reign of Nicholas II, a strictly conservative policy was pursued in education. Thus, in 1835, the universities were deprived of their autonomy. With Alexander II, everything changed in opposite side... It was announced that education was devoid of class, along with state, private and church schools, zemstvo schools appeared. Literacy has skyrocketed. The number of educational institutions increased. With ascension to the throne Alexander III the conservative course prevailed again.
Science achieved tremendous growth in the 19th century. N. Lobachevsky, N. Zinin, B. Jacobi, N. Pirogov, F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev, N. Karamzin are prominent scientists and researchers of the first half of the century (by no means all). Then D. Mendeleev, I. Sechenov, I. Mechnikov, K. Timiryazev, P. Yablochkov, N. Zhukovsky, V. Klyuchevsky and others achieved great success. Surnames that everyone can hear in the classroom at school.
As you can see, the legacy is enormous. As you can see, between art and political life There is an inextricable link between the state, which contributed to the unprecedented rise of Russian culture in the 19th century, which finally took a worthy high place in the world.

Introduction

1. Social thought

2. Artistic culture Western Europe

3. XIX century as a cultural historical era

3.1. Literature

3.2. Architecture

3.4. Painting

3.5. Music

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

The culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. TO late XVIII v. capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all branches of material production, which led to the corresponding transformations in the non-production sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, public consciousness).

Spiritual culture of the 19th century developed and functioned under the influence of two major factors: successes in the field of philosophy and natural science. Science was the leading dominant of the 19th century culture.

Different value orientations were based on two starting positions: the establishment and affirmation of the values ​​of the bourgeois way of life, on the one hand, and a critical rejection of bourgeois society, on the other. Hence the emergence of such dissimilar phenomena in the culture of the 19th century: romanticism, critical realism, symbolism, naturalism, positivism, etc.

1. Public thought

An important shift in the culture of Western Europe was the establishment of the principle of realism in ideology, art, philosophy. Mythological and religious perception of the world is replaced by the recognition of reality, which requires taking into account circumstances and overcoming illusions. Utilitarian thinking, closely tied to needs, was asserted real life... V social life the autonomy of the church and state-political power was formed, and stable bourgeois relations were established in every social stratum.

During the XIX - XX centuries. in bourgeois society, specialized value orientations are developed and introduced into public consciousness high prestige of entrepreneurship. Ideological attitudes establish the image of a successful person who embodies the spirit of enterprise, determination, desire for risk, combined with accurate calculation, and the combination of the spirit of entrepreneurship with the national spirit turns out to be an important means of social cohesion. Establishing national unity meant smoothing out internal differences, barriers, and borders. At the state level, various programs are being implemented aimed at mitigating the consequences of social stratification, at ensuring the survival and preserving the status of low-income groups of the population.

Interstate relations of European countries strove for sociocultural pluralism, although the struggle for independence and autonomous rights led to long and bloody wars. Sometimes the rivalry was carried over to colonial spaces.

The level of centralization, political and spiritual monopoly gradually declined, which ultimately contributed to the strengthening of pluralism. The interaction of various centers of influence created a pluralistic system in which the regulation of relations was developed on the basis of the mutual relationship of rights and obligations. This system contributed to the destruction of anarchy, authoritarianism and the formation of a mechanism for the legal regulation of relations.

The principles of democracy were implemented primarily in state life, extending to other spheres of society.

The complex mechanism of an industrialized system requires to maintain not only an appropriate social structure, divided primarily into various categories, but also the priority of values ​​inherent in a bourgeois industrial society, such as: achievement and success, private property, individualism, law, activity and labor, consumerism , universalism, belief in progress, respect for science and technology.

These values ​​are actively asserted by the entire system of spiritual influence on the masses of the population.

The formation of new principles of regulation of socio-cultural life responded to those changes in Western European society that accompany it at a later stage of development, usually called modernization.

Alienation has become one of the critical characteristics industrial society. From the sphere of industrial relations, alienation spread to social norms.

The subjugation of more backward countries in order to exploit their resources was not limited to the establishment of political and economic domination, but was accompanied by the suppression of local cultures in the name of the universalism of Western industrial civilization. This sparked the national liberation movement on a large scale.

2. Artistic culture of Western Europe

For the culture of the XIX century. characterized by versatility, the struggle of different directions, the beginning of crisis phenomena. The nature of human interaction with the surrounding reality is fundamentally changing: a contemplative attitude appears, a desire for sensual contact with the world, and in different currents this is carried out in different ways. In naturalism - through the fixation of the fleeting, through the individual impression. In Impressionism - through the transmission of dynamically filled life. In symbolism - thanks to the animation of the external world, and in modernism - thanks to the creation of images of the spirit.

Two important features of the 19th century culture should be noted:

1. The assertion of the values ​​of the bourgeois way of life, which manifested itself in the orientation towards consumption and comfort, and in art led to the emergence of new art styles(Empire style, academicism, pseudo-romanticism, etc.)

2. Improvement of the institutional forms of culture, that is, the unification of previously scattered academic institutions of culture: museums, libraries, theaters, art exhibitions. The art industry emerged. Art has become a commodity and structure of bourgeois economic relations.

The most important cultural achievement of the XIX century. is the emergence of the art of photography and design. The development of photography led to a revision of the artistic principles of graphics, painting, sculpture, combined artistry and documentary, which is not attainable in other types of art. The design was based on the International industrial exhibition in London in 1850. Its design marked the convergence of art and technology and marked the beginning of a new type of creativity.

A very important fact in the culture of the XIX century. there was a differentiation of artistic culture into aesthetics, art criticism, art history as separate areas of humanitarian knowledge.

XIX century. was a century of ups and downs, a century of versatility and contradictions, but it prepared that turning point in the consciousness and culture of mankind, which separated the traditions of the classical and modern eras.

3. XIX century as a cultural historical era

The 19th century became the century of "permanent revolution" that took place in all spheres of society. Technical civilization is replacing the traditional one in Europe. Modern researchers call such a process modernization, including industrialization, scientific and technological progress, urbanization, democratization. political structures, secularization, education growth and change social status women.

Industrialization and urbanization changed the social structure of European countries: society was increasingly divided into two classes - the bourgeoisie that owned the means of production and the proletarians deprived of these means and selling their labor power. Economic and social status the working class was extremely difficult: a long working day of 14-16 hours, a low standard of living, colossal unemployment, widespread use of cheaper child and female labor. Under these conditions, the economic and political actions of the workers who demanded social reforms became natural.

The social conflicts of capitalism were comprehended by politicians and philosophers, socialist and communist movements arose. These parties had some political influence. The trade union movement was becoming a real social force. By the end of the 19th century, the political reforms carried out mitigated the adverse effects of industrialization, and in most countries the state began to take on the fight against poverty.

In the 19th century, scientific and technical discoveries were made that led to a change in the way of life of people, to the ability of a person to do more in a shorter period of time: by the end of the century, the steamboat, the telegraph, the telephone, gas and electric lighting, photography and cinema were invented.

Science moved from the period of gathering facts to the stage of identifying patterns, theoretical natural science arose. In physics, the law of conservation and conversion of energy was formulated in biology - the cellular theory and the theory of evolution were created, in chemistry - periodic system, and in geometry - Lobachevsky's theory.

Science has become not just a form of rational knowledge and a new social institution. Her claims to create her own picture of the world, declared in the era of the Enlightenment in the famous "Encyclopedia", were confirmed by more and more theories and scientific achievements introduced into production. science became a productive force, and its role in society increased more and more. Science was perceived as perfect knowledge about nature and man. Both philosophy and art tried to resemble her.

In philosophy, the Marxist and positivist trends will assert themselves as scientific knowledge. In art, such a direction as naturalism will be an attempt to use the positivist method.

Positivism was not only a philosophy, it also became a very widespread worldview of the era. It seemed that the methods of positive sciences should spread both in the seemingly excessively speculative philosophy, and in contemporary art, which should now be guided by science as a model.