Russian culture of the second half of the xiii - xv centuries. Culture of Russia in the XIII century and its development Russian culture 13 15

By the 13th century, the once mighty and great Kiev had lost its former greatness and political significance, and the ancient Russian state itself disintegrated into many princely lands. The South-West, North-East and Novgorod lands were mired in civil strife, strife and disputes. Even the disaster approaching Russia did not stop the fratricidal showdowns - the horde of Mongol nomads, which had turned from a threat into reality, bristled menacingly with crooked, sharply sharpened sabers and rolled a cruel avalanche, sweeping away all living things in their path. Destroying and burning everything that with such love, desire and diligence was erected, built, decorated, created by several generations. All the achievements of the ancient Russian civilization were under the threat of destruction. Despite the desperate and heroic resistance of the majority of Russian cities, which they put up mainly one by one, Russia for two and a half centuries found itself under the yoke of the eastern conquerors. An example of this disunity sometimes looks like a betrayal.

After the Mongols defeated the Galician, Kiev and Chernigov princes on the Kalka River, although the Russian forces outnumbered the Horde, the princes who fled across the Dnieper not only abandoned the remnants of their troops, but also chopped up free boats, and the Mongols killed everyone who did not manage to cross. Prince of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich did not come to the aid of the Ryazan people when Batu Khan laid siege to Ryazan, but he paid dearly for it. The Horde not only captured and plundered Vladimir, while the prince himself was already trying to get help from the northern principalities, but also burned his entire family alive in the Vladimir Cathedral. Later, the prince himself died in the battle. For Russian culture, as well as for the economy, the Mongol-Tatar yoke had disastrous consequences. Regular raids led to new devastation. Tribute was paid not only in the form of money and valuables, but also by taking the most prominent, skilled artisans into slavery, which led to the loss of many techniques and skills, and some types of craft were completely lost. And although the historian of the 20th century Lev Gumilyov calls the yoke of the Mongol-Tatar hordes a raid on Russia, during this period such cultural and political centers as Kiev, Pereslavl, Chernigov, Ryazan, were completely destroyed. Those that remained intact also suffered - the Horde took them to the full of skilled craftsmen: gunsmiths, stone cutters, saddlers, blacksmiths.

Many artisans died defending their cities, so some applied crafts even disappeared altogether. For example, in the jewelry business, some of the techniques inherent only in ancient Russian art were lost. Old Russian architecture suffered significantly during the time. The cruel barbarian nomads set on fire not only the fortifications, but also the architecturally beautiful Russian churches, cathedrals and monasteries. The buildings burned along with the age-old ancient Russian, Byzantine icons, frescoes of remarkable Russian painters, the most valuable handwritten books, which were monuments of ancient Russian literature. Often, the wild horde burned them along with the people who took refuge there. No one was spared - no women, no old people, no children and even babies. The fire killed not only most of the ancient Russian books, but the chronicle was also interrupted. Painting and many applied arts and crafts fell into decay. For more than half a century, stone construction stopped in Russia due to the lack of artisans, materials for construction and the complete impoverishment of the prince's treasury. As a result of the Mongol invasion, Russian culture lost incommensurate with what it could learn from the conquerors. In this sense, Alexander Sergeevich expressed himself very accurately, who remarked that “Tatars are not Moors. Having conquered Russia, they gave it neither algebra nor a new Aristotle. "

Some historians, for example G.V. Vernadsky, believe that the Mongol yoke completely destroyed the elements of democracy in the political structure of cities. The death penalty, corporal punishment, and compulsory military service were introduced. Of the positive aspects of the conquest, if one can say so at all, it is customary to talk about the postal equestrian service created by the Mongols. But literacy has perceptibly decreased, and even among the princes there appeared, as the chronicler put it, “non-book” and “illiterate”. But the Mongol-Tatar yoke could not completely trample Russia and destroy its nationality, its civilization. Her spiritual life and her culture were revived, like the fabulous Phoenix bird from the ashes. New architects, painters, inquisitive and talented were born, new cities grew up, new books were written. Russia was alive!

Russian culture of the second halfXIII- Xvcenturies.

The beginning of the 13th century was marked by a sharp increase in the pressure of Catholicism on the Orthodox world. In the Novgorod and Baltic lands, missionary activity of Catholics among the local, primarily non-Russian, population became more active. Culture suffered heavy damage. Over the century from the middle of the XIII to the middle of the XIV century, literacy in Russia sharply decreased. The extermination and capture of artisans led to a drop in the level of handicraft production. Many techniques and skills were forgotten, some types of craft disappeared altogether. Many items common to previous eras have disappeared from the archaeological inventory. For example, slate spindles and carnelian beads, glass bracelets and amphora-pots disappeared. The art of cloisonné enamel has been lost forever, polychrome building ceramics have disappeared, filigree and metal embossing have not existed for almost two centuries.

Russian architecture also suffered, many monuments were destroyed, stone construction stopped for half a century due to a lack of material resources and builders. When it resumed, the main types of previously used types of building materials and equipment were lost, so the buildings of that time were short-lived. A huge number of written monuments perished, chronicle writing, applied art, painting fell into decay.

As a result of the political events of the XIII-XIV centuries, various parts of the Old Russian nationality were divided, torn off from each other. Joining various state formations made it difficult to develop economic and cultural ties between separate regions of the formerly united Russia, deepening the difference in language and culture that existed before. This led to the addition, on the basis of the Old Russian nationality, of three fraternal nationalities: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

The cultures of these peoples were based on the traditions of ancient Russian culture, which predetermined the presence of common features, but at the same time, each culture acquired its own specific features, reflecting the emerging ethnic characteristics of the people and the specific historical conditions of its economic, political and cultural development.

Since the XIV century, the name Little Russia appeared, it first referred to the Galicia-Volyn land, and then to the Dnieper, emphasizing the inextricable connection of the region with all of Russia. The name Ukraine began to be used a little later, although since the end of the 12th century this word has been found in the annals to determine the border position of some lands (for example, the Pereyaslavsky principality). Later this name acquired a new meaning and referred mainly to the middle Dnieper region, and then spread to all the southwestern lands of Russia. Gradually, the name Ukraine was entrenched in the minds of the people and from the 16th century it passed into official documents and literature.

In the XIV century, a new name appeared, Belaya Rus. The inhabitants who inhabited the region called themselves Russians, only in the 15th century the name Belarusians was entrenched behind them.

2. It is possible to outline several stages of the historical and cultural process in Russia from the second half of the 13th to the end of the 15th century, corresponding to the stages of general historical development.

The first stage (from the Mongol-Tatar invasion in 1237 - approximately to the middle of the XIV century) is characterized by a noticeable decline in various spheres of material and spiritual culture; but at the same time, already at the end of the 13th century, the first signs of an incipient revival were observed. In Tver, Novgorod, then in Moscow, stone architecture was resumed, new centers of chronicle writing appeared (Moscow, Tver).

The second stage (from about the middle of the XIV to the middle of the XV century) is the economic rise of Rus, the strengthening of local state formations, the rise of Moscow, Tver, Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan as large and strong economic and political centers. The Battle of Kulikovo marks an important stage on the path of liberating the country from the yoke of foreign invaders and uniting it under the rule of Moscow.

A new stage in the historical and cultural process dates back to the second half of the 15th century. and continues at the beginning XVI century... At this time, the unification of Russian lands takes place, the interpenetration of local cultures is increasing. Pskov architects appear in Moscow, local chronicles closely follow the events in Moscow. Becoming the state center of the country, Moscow is turning into the center of the emerging culture of the Russian people. The previous stage of the flourishing of the culture of local centers enriched the culture of the country as a whole, and now it merges in the general flow, although the local features affect for a long time. Ties with Western countries are expanding and strengthening even more, but cultural communication is hindered by the church with its stubborn struggle against "Latinism", against everything new and foreign. This is primarily due to the peculiarities of the socio-economic basis The Russian state, which arose and developed on the basis of feudalism and serfdom.

Thus, the XIV-XV centuries. - the time of the restoration and rise of the culture of the Russian lands, the beginning of the formation of the culture of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality.

3. The main theme of the UNT is the struggle against the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Swedish and German invaders. Whole cycles of oral folk poetry are formed around these events. Among them are legends about the battle on Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan by Batu and about the Ryazan hero Evpatiy Kolovrat, about the exploits of Mercury of Smolensk, about the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice.

The heroic epic epic reaches its highest rise. The heroes of ancient epics begin to fight the Tatars.

During this period, new genre oral folklore - historical songs. Unlike epics, heroes and events in a historical song are portrayed more realistically, and they convey the attitude of the people to certain events in history. The songs reflected the feat of ordinary people who tried to stop the hordes of Batu: "Song of Prince Roman and Marya Yuryevna" "Song of Avdotya Ryazanochka", "Song of Shchelkan Dudentievich" (response to the uprising in Tver in 1327 against Chol-khan).

A variety of this genre are songs about the Tatar field, mainly about girls from the meadow, where the focus of the narrative is not the fate of the state, but private human destinies ("A girl escapes from the Tatars", "Mother meets her daughter in Tatar captivity", etc.).

In the second half of the 14th century, a new rise in Russian culture began. Literacy is spreading among urban artisans and merchants. There is numerous information about schools for children that existed at churches, and the teachers were the lower clergy. Education began at the age of 7, taught writing, counting, church singing. In the 15th century, such schools appeared in the countryside.

Unique finds include birch bark letters of the second half of the 13th century. - "study books" A wooden plaque with the alphabet was also found, according to which they taught Novgorod children to read and write.

The walls of the Novgorod and Pskov churches are covered with numerous inscriptions, scratched on the stone and very similar to the letter of birch bark letters. People believed that the inscription inscribed on the wall of the "temple of God" would help them or would have the power of an oath. The rise of culture from the second half of the XIV century was accompanied by the development of the book industry. Already in the XIV century, paper began to be imported to Russia from Italy and France. It was a more convenient material than birch bark and cheaper than parchment. With the advent of paper, books began to fall in price and there were more of them. Book workshops existed not only at monasteries, but also in cities where princely and veche offices were important centers of writing. There were professional scribes in Russia, many of them were secular people who did not belong to the clergy. The writing instruments were goose pens, for the preparation of which they used special "penknives". The writing schedule has changed in the XIV-XV centuries. instead of the strict “statutory” letter with its geometrically correct clear letters, the so-called “semi-ustav” appeared. Now the lines of the letters lost their former harmony, became uneven, the same distance between the letters could not be maintained, a large number of abbreviated words appeared. There was a slope in the handwriting - a sign that they were now writing broadly and quickly. And in the XV century. the so-called "cursive" appeared. The words began to be reduced even more, the letters are carried out above the line, are written together, the ends of the letters go beyond the lines - "tails" and strokes appear. Now there is no uniformity in the very drawing of the letters - they write in the way that is more convenient and faster.

Pages of handwritten books were decorated with colored headpieces and miniatures. A "monstrous" ornament was often used, composed of images of fantastic creatures.

Books were usually made to order. Liturgical books predominated. The so-called "read" books appear, that is, books intended for individual reading.

During this period, special devices for counting - abacus - were distributed. Mathematical concepts and terminology are spreading, geometry called surveying appears, some knowledge of medicine and pharmacology is spreading. Among the technical innovations are a tower clock and a water mill, which for a long time was the only engine in Russia.

5. The peculiarity of medieval literature is that the works were based on specific historical facts, and the characters in literary works were real historical figures. The central theme of the literature of this period was the struggle against the Tatars. Hagiographic literature imbued with publicistic ideas about the main role of Moscow and the princely power, but with the primacy of the church.

At the end of the 14th century, the rhetorical-panegyric (expressive-emotional) style or the style of "weaving words" became widespread in hagiographic literature. Spatial and flowery monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature were introduced into the texts, more attention was paid to the feelings of the hero, his state of mind. There are psychological motivations for actions actors... In the second half of the 15th century, the genre of storytelling began to spread in Russian literature. Chronicle. The rise of annals dates back to the XIV-XV centuries. In local grand-ducal chronicles, much attention was usually paid to the past of one or another principality, with a one-sided approach to covering the events of the unification of the lands of Rus. Thus, a characteristic feature of the Russian chronicle was patriotism in a peculiar religious coloration.

6. Stone construction, which had ceased due to the Tatar-Mongol invasion, resumed only at the end of the XIII century. Since that time, the traditions of regional architectural schools that had developed in the previous period have revived and received a new development.

In 1367, in Moscow, Dmitry Donskoy erects the only stone Kremlin in the XIV-XV centuries in all of North-Eastern Russia.

Painting the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries developed in a single channel with architecture. Monumental painting has practically not survived as a result of numerous wars. The painting of the beginning of the XIV century acquires a gloomy character: pointed faces, softened writing, schematic images. New for Russian painting was the secondary rapprochement with the art of Byzantium ("Spas a bright eye", "Boris and Gleb"). At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, the leading place was taken by the Moscow school of icon painting. Its most famous representative was Andrei Rublev (circa 1360-70-circa 1430). The XIV century was marked by the appearance of the iconostasis. Its predecessor is considered to be a low altar barrier, which was in some churches. Sculpture. The art of carving on commemorative and worship crosses developed. The image of Christ was carved in the middle, and on the branches is the image of the Mother of God and John the Baptist and other saints or archangels. In the last quarter of the 14th century, the first works of statuary art appeared in Russian sculpture.

In today's lesson, you will learn about the development of Russian culture during the difficult period for our country, the Golden Horde yoke.

Topic: Old Russian state

Lesson:Culture of Russia in the XIII-XIV centuries

As a result of the Mongol invasion of Russia, were lost wonderful monuments ancient Russian culture. The fires killed the works of architects and artists, chroniclers and artisans. Many talented craftsmen were taken into captivity by the Horde. There was no one to pass on to new generations the accumulated long years traditions of craft and architecture. For example, no stone buildings were built in Russia for fifty years after the Mongol invasion. The art of white stone carving is a thing of the past. Jewelers have forever lost the secret of cloisonné enamel. In Vladimir, Kiev and other cities, the chronicle stopped for a while. Even in Novgorod and Pskov, to which the Mongols did not reach, cultural life seemed to come to a standstill. “Our beauty has perished, our wealth has gone to others, the work of our labor has gone to the nasty,” one of the writers of that time grieved.

A gradual revival of the culture of the Russian lands began at the end of the 13th century. Cities were rebuilt anew. In Tver, Novgorod, Moscow, and then in other cities, they began to erect stone buildings again. Crafts were revived, new chronicles were created.

Books in Russia were still handwritten. They were copied both in large cities - Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, and in small ones. The rules of writing and spelling of letters changed. In the XIV century, they began to use not only the previously adopted script of the charter, but also the semi-ustav. The writing of his letters was not so strict, they could have a slope, the letter line became less even. The writing process itself has accelerated significantly. Now the scribe had time to do much more in a day. From the end of the XIV century cursive writing began to spread - letters began to be written together. In addition, cursive writing allowed for the reduction of words.

In the XIV century, paper appeared in Russia, which was brought from Italy and France. It cost less than parchment and was easier to write on. The advent of paper has led to the fact that there are many more books.

One of the most major writers Russia at the end of the XIV - beginning of the 15th century was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Epiphanius the Wise. He also spent part of his life in Moscow and Tver. Epiphanius was one of the best book scribes of his time, he decorated books with expressive miniatures. He carefully collected information about great contemporaries, about the peculiarities of nature and the life of people in different Russian lands. Epiphanius wrote his works in a peculiar ornate language, which testified, as was believed then, about the author's special scholarship. The lives of Sergius of Radonezh and Dmitry Donskoy belong to him. It was not by chance that Epiphanius turned to the names of those who played such a prominent role in the revival of the country and the struggle for its freedom. After the Battle of Kulikovo, the theme of the heroic deed of its participants became the leading one in Russian literature.

A chronicle story about the fight against Mamai was written in Moscow. She became widely known and was included in many of the annals. The author of the story paid tribute to the personal courage of Dmitry Donskoy. “I want, both in word and deed, to be ahead of everyone and lay my head in front of everyone for the brothers and for all Christians; then the others, seeing this, will begin to show their courage with zeal, ”the prince says to his companions before the battle. The author of the chronicle story not only talked about heroic deeds, but also analyzed the reasons for the victory over Mamai. His views reflected the worldview of the inhabitants of the Russian lands of that time. According to the writer, the victory at the Kulikovo field is predetermined by God's will, and Prince Dmitry is motivated, first of all, by love for God and the Orthodox Church. The divine principle, the ideals of Christian service to people helped the inhabitants of Russia to strengthen their spirit in an era of difficult trials, they found them in the purity and holiness of religion.

At the end of the XIV century, the first poetic works about the Kulikovo battle appeared, which later made up an extensive literary cycle - "Zadonshchina". Scientists assume that it began with a song composed by the Ryazan boyar Zephany. He was well acquainted with Old Russian literature, "Zadonshchina" has something in common with "The Lay of Igor's Host." “And already falcons and gyrfalcons, Belozersk hawks ... they flew under the blue skies, rattled golden bells on the fast Don, they want to attack many flocks of goose and swans. These are bogatyrs, Russian daredevils who want to attack the great forces of Tsar Mamai. "

Rice. 3. "The Legend of the Mamaev Massacre" ()

Outstanding architectural monuments were created after the resumption of stone construction by the architects of Veliky Novgorod. The first of these was the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipno. It was built at the end of the 13th century not far from the city on an islet among swamps ("lipny"). This small one-domed church seems slender and sublime. But at the same time, it retains the features characteristic of Novgorod churches, making them akin to fortress and defensive structures.

In the XIV century, the Novgorodians developed a special architectural style, the most striking monuments of which are the churches of Fyodor Stratilat and the Savior on Ilyin Street. These buildings are not as significant in size as, for example, St. Sophia Cathedral. The simplicity of their forms is combined with majesty. The walls were decorated very modestly, the heads of the churches were more elegant. The builders used a variety of materials: limestone slabs, boulders, bricks were used. This gave the buildings a special originality.

The origin of stone construction in Moscow dates back to the reign of Ivan Kalita. By his order, in connection with the relocation of Metropolitan Peter, the first (later there were others) Assumption Cathedral was built. The prince wanted to show that Moscow had become the spiritual center of the Russian lands. The famous Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir seemed to have passed the baton to its Moscow counterpart.

Rice. 4. Assumption Cathedral (Moscow) ()

During the time of Ivan Kalita, the Annunciation Cathedral was built, which became the burial vault of the Moscow princes. By the end of the XIV century, the Moscow Kremlin was built up with many single-domed white-stone churches. The unique architectural appearance of the main city of Russia began to form. Unfortunately, the buildings of the XIV century have not survived to this day.

Our ancestors strove to take care of the architectural heritage of the past. At the same time, they did not just study and in some ways repeated the old samples. At the end of the XIV century, restoration of ancient structures was undertaken in Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Rostov.

The revival of icon painting is associated with the name of the Byzantine master Theophanes the Greek who was invited to Russia. He was able to combine in his work samples of Byzantine art and techniques developed by Russian masters. At the end of the XIV century, Feofan worked in Novgorod and Moscow, studied Vladimir icon painting. The artist's brushes belong to the icons of the Don Mother of God, Saints Peter and Paul, the Dormition of the Mother of God. Theophanes also painted the walls of the temples. Particularly impressive are his frescoes in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street. The images created by the artist seem harsh, even formidable, while they are filled with spirituality, as if they glow from within.

Many Russian artists studied with Theophanes the Greek. The most talented of them was Andrei Rublev. Theophanes and his disciples transformed the decoration of the Russian church. On the partition that separates the main place in the church - the altar - from the rest of it, the artists created an iconostasis. Icons were placed on it in several rows. Now they have acquired a strict strand, formed a single composition.

Having survived the difficult era of the Mongol invasion, the Russian people began to revive their culture. Literature and fine arts of the XIII-XIV centuries were imbued with the desire for high spiritual ideals, the idea of ​​the struggle for the liberation of the Motherland.

1. Grabar I.E. About Old Russian Art. M., 1966.
2. Alpatov M.V. Theophanes the Greek. M., 1979.

1. Historic.ru).
2. Russian Academy of Justice ().

1. What consequences of the Mongol invasion did the Russian people have to overcome?
2. Why do you think "Zadonshchina" begins with these words: "Come on, brothers and friends, let's climb the mountains of Kiev and magnify the Russian land"?
3. Why do you think a repetition of the Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was made especially for the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin?
4. Tell us about the life and work of Theophanes the Greek.

Introduction

Development of the main literary genres (Lives, walks, stories)

Creativity of Metropolitan Cyprian, Epiphanius the Wise, Pachomius Logofet

Publicism of the second half of the 15th century

The flowering of painting. Theophanes the Greek, Andrey Rublev. Dionysius and his sons

Development of stone church and secular architecture

Life and customs

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

Every person living in their own country should know its history, especially its culture. Without knowledge of the culture of past years, it is impossible to understand what people felt at that period of time, which internal processes gave impetus to its development, which features in the culture were on the face, and which are less noticeable, which influenced its formation and development, since the influence different countries to Russia was enormous.

I am considering Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries, because Russia at that time began to revive.

Together with the revival and rise of the Russian land, the development of the economy after the Tatar-Mongol invasion, together with the process of unification of the Russian principalities, first around several centers, and then around Moscow, Russian culture revived and developed. It clearly reflected all the innovations in Russian life, and most importantly, the changed mood of the Russian people, its patriotic impulse during the fight against the horde on the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo and during the creation of a single Russian centralized state.

The aim of the work was to show that Russian culture is developing in constant search, as evidenced by history itself. Although influenced by the culture of the West and the East, she created her own. Domestic traditions, not limited to copying other people's images.

1. Development of the main literary genres (life, walking, story)

The period of the XII-XI centuries in Russian literature is a transitional one in the movement from Kiev literature, marked by ideological and statistical unity, to the literature of the future centralized Moscow state. V literary process two main stages can be distinguished: XIII-XIV centuries. and XV century.

The first begins with the Battle of Kalka in 1223 and ends with a victory at the Kulikovo field in 1380. The literature of this period is characterized by various tendencies. The leading genre of this time is the war story, the dominant theme is the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Poetic pathos, images and exiled patriotic feelings are imbued with "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu", "The Tale of the Death of the Russian Land", "The Legend of the Feats and Life of the Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky" (a life that has features of a military tale), "The Tale of Shevkal", dedicated to the events of 1327. in Tver, etc.

Lives are church writings about outstanding Russian people - princes, church leaders. Their heroes were only individuals whose activities were truly an era in the history of Rus, or those whose life feat became an example for many generations of Russian people. The church declared them saints. This was, for example, "The Life of St. Alexander Nevsky." It told about the remarkable feats of the prince in the fight against the Swedes, the Germans, about his titanic and dangerous diplomatic activities in relations with Batu, the Golden Horde, about his mysterious death on the way from Sarai. Russian people, reading this Life, were imbued with the ideas of serving the Motherland, patriotism. The author sought to distract from everything selfish, vain and awaken in their souls the high ideals of life of serving people, society, and their country.

Another such famous Life was the story of the life and tragic end of the Tver Grand Duke Mikhail Yaroslavich, torn to pieces in the Horde.

The favorite reading of the Russian people was the Life of Sergius of Radonezh, written by his disciple Epiphanius the Wise in 1417-1418. On the pages of this essay, the image of a highly moral, hardworking, deeply religious person appears, for whom the highest happiness is to do good to his neighbor and well-being native land.

The second stage in the development of literature begins after the victory at the Kulikovo field and ends with the annexation of Veliky Novgorod, Tver and Pskov to Moscow. During these years, the idea of ​​political and cultural unification of the Russian lands dominated in public thought in literature, which was increasingly associated with Moscow. Moscow literature acquired a general Russian character and occupied a leading place.

Legends are especially popular at this time. These are stories dedicated significant events in the life of the country. Such a legend was "Zadonshchina" (written in the 80s of the XIV century), which tells about the Battle of Kulikovo. Its author, Sofroniy Ryazantsev, tells step by step about the beginning of the Mamai invasion, the preparation of Dmitry Donskoy to repel the enemy, about the gathering of the army, about the outcome of the historical battle.

The story is imbued with a high patriotic spirit, and it is not for nothing that the author turns mentally to the events and images of The Lay of Igor's Host.

A special legend was created about the invasion of Khan Tokhtamysh to Moscow, which literally shook Russia after a brilliant victory at the Kulikovo field. Historical and literary works reflected all the complexity and tragedy of the struggle of Russia for unity, against the Horde yoke.

In the XIV - XV centuries. again appear in Russia "Walking" - works describing the long travels of Russian people. One of them was the famous "Walking Beyond the Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, in which he spoke about his many years of travel to the countries of the East and about life in India. The beginning of the description is dated 1466, and the last lines were written in 1472 on the way back, not far from Tver, where A. Nikitin died.

In the XV century. the theme of the national liberation struggle was pushed aside by the literature of a new type, which was distinguished by thematic and stylistic diversity, a more limited connection with folklore and a desire for psychologism.

2. Creativity of Metropolitan Cyprian, Epiphanius the Wise, Pachomius Logofet

Cyprian - Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia, writer, editor, translator and book writer. He began his journey in Bulgaria in the Kelifarei monastery of Theodosius of Tarnovsky and became close to Evorimius of Tarnovsky, he left from there to Constantinople, and then to Athos. Subsequently, he became a cell attendant of the patriarch, in 1373 he was sent to Lithuania and Russia to use the Lithuanian and Tver princes with the Metropolitan of All Russia Alexei. In 1375, when the enmity between Lithuania and Moscow resumed, the Lithuanian princes sent Cyprian by letter to Constantinople, asking the patriarch to consecrate Cyprian as the metropolitan of Lithuania. In the same year, Patriarch Philophius gave him the right, after the death of Metropolitan Alexei, to unite both parts of the metropolitanate, becoming the metropolitan of "Kiev and All Russia". In June 1376, Cyprian arrived in Kiev and, through ambassadors, tried to obtain his rights from the Moscow prince, Novgorod and Pskov. And in the summer of 1378 he signed with Sergius of Radonezh and Fyodor Simonovsky, Cyprian tried, against the will of the prince, to enter into his own rights, but in the end he was captured near Moscow and was expelled from Great Russia.

After his exile, his letters to Sergius and Fedor were preserved, in which he talks about this event, and these messages are publicistic works that were, calculated so that readers, under the threat of church excommunication, would preserve and disseminate him. In 1381, Cyprian created a service to the Metropolitan, writing his own edition of the Life of Metropolitan Peter, where he enclosed a prophecy about the future political greatness of Moscow, provided that it supported Orthodoxy. And with the help of Peter, Cyprian was received in Moscow and was able to take the throne, which once belonged to Peter.

Under Cyprian, Russian literature began to increase due to translations of Greek, monastic colonization of the Russian North, church building and the decoration of churches in Russia also intensified. Under Cyprian, a reform and some unification of Russian church singing, musical notation were carried out, and the period of chronology began from March to September.

Epiphanius the Wise compiler of the Lives, a disciple of the Monk Sergius of Radonezh. He lived at the end of the XIV century. and the beginning of the 15th century. He owns the "Life of the Monk Sergius", which he began to write a year after the death of the monk. Other works of Epiphanius: "A word is commendable to our reverend father Sergius" and "The life of St. Stephen of Perm" texts, life descriptor of his outstanding contemporaries, participated in the work on the chronicle Epiphanius was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

In 1380, Epiphanius ended up at the Trinity Monastery near Moscow as a disciple, the famous ascetic Sergius of Radonezh at that time in Russia. Here he was engaged in book-writing activities. In 1392, Epiphanius, after the death of his mentor, moved to Moscow to the Metropolitan Cyprian. And he dedicated two decades to Sergius of Radonezh writing his biography.

The most famous works of Epiphanius the Wise were: "The Word about the Life and Teachings of our holy father Stephen, who was a bishop in Perm." It was written after Stephen's death.

Pakhomiy Logofet was also a writer of the 15th century. Information about his life and work of that century of Russian literature has hardly survived. He was originally a Serb and lived on Mount Athos, but at a young age he came to Russia during the reign and reign of Vasily Vasilyevich. Most of his life Pakhomiy spent in Russia in Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. His first literary work there was also this "Life of St. Sergius" in Russia. And this was a reworking of the life, which was written by Epiphanius.

The works of Pachomius eliminated Epiphanievsky, which is no longer found in manuscripts. The second work of Pachomius is considered "The Life of Metropolitan Alexei"; it was written by Pachomius at the will of the Grand Duke, the Metropolitan, and according to the definition of the entire council. Pachomius finally and for a long time consolidated literary devices with hesitation introduced for the first time by Cyprian and Epiphanius. Pachomius did not care about facts, but only about its more beautiful transmission and did not study historical materials, but resorting to the help of common places.

... Publicism of the second half of the 15th century

The emergence of publicistic works of the 15th century is associated with the formation of a single Russian state. Basically, journalistic features are of the works that arose in connection with the spread of the heretical teachings of the second half of XVI century and the first half of the XVI century and one of the central problems of that time was the problem of human autocracy. Topics of autocracy concerned both representatives of the orthodox direction and heretics. But one of the aspects of the topic of autocracy was the question of the limits of the royal power - should the sovereign be accountable to his subjects for his actions, or is he responsible for his actions only before God. And this question became one of the central ones in the writings of Joseph Volotsky. The publicistic works of the leader Vasian Patrikeevich were devoted to the relationship between spiritual mentors and secular authorities. And even small works of Vasian were directed against Joseph Volotsky, consisting of an introduction and three words. In them, he opposes monastic land tenure, as well as against the mass executions of repentant heretics.

If we consider the problem of autocracy in another aspect, considering and analyzing the principles on which the relations of the sovereign with the subjects should be built, Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov considered in such works as "Big and Small Petitions", "The Legend of Malmeb-Saltan" and others. In these works, he raises another acute problem of the exact observance of the rite and true faith, which are important for a person and for the state, in which Ivan Peresvetov insists on the need to form a strong government and criticizes the system that has already taken shape.

Publicistic trends and sources of their distribution of that time are directly related to the events of the Time of Troubles.

Also in their small pieces in terms of volume, they were close to the traditional genres of spiritual literature: this is "Visions". For example: "The Story of a Vision Between Protopov Terenty", "Visions in Nizhny Novgorod and Vladimir", "Visions in Ustyug" and others. There were such genres as the Epistles, for example: “A new story about the Glorious Russian flourishing”, such as Lamentations: “The plan for the captivity and the final ruin of the Moscow state. In them, the authors tried to comprehend the dramatic events that took place, to understand their causes, and also to find a way out of the created situations by trying to analyze what is happening.

4. The flourishing of painting. Theophanes the Greek, Andrey Rublev. Dionysius and his sons

General rise spiritual life Rus in the XIV-XV centuries, the rapid development of architecture influenced to a large extent the collision of new Russian painting. From this time, wonderful creations of icon painters Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Daniil Cherny have come down to us. All of them were icon painters, masters of fresco painting on religious themes. The greatness of Russian painters consisted in the fact that, without going beyond the church framework, they knew how to create genuine artistic masterpieces.

How did you manage to achieve this? Firstly, thanks to the deep humanistic ideas embedded in the creations. Secondly, due to his own unique artistic style, color combinations, the very manner of writing, with the help of which these ideas were expressed. So in Novgorod in the second half of the XIV century. painted temples and created icons Theophanes the Greek. Already by his name it is clear that he comes from Byzantium. His faces of saints literally shocked people. Several strong, at first glance, rough strokes, play of contrasting colors (white, grey hair and the brown wrinkled faces of the saints) he created the character of man. The earthly life of the saints of the Orthodox Church was not easy, at times it was tragic, and every face painted by Theophanes was full of human passions, emotions, and drama. Theophan, who became famous, was invited from Novgorod to Moscow, where he painted a number of churches.

Theophan's younger contemporary was Andrei Rublev, a monk at first at the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and then at the Moscow Spaso-Andronnikov Monastery. He communicated with Sergius of Radonezh, he was encouraged and supported by Yuri Zvenigorodsky. For some time Rublev worked in Moscow together with Theophanes the Greek. They painted at the beginning of the 15th century. frescoed still wooden Moscow Annunciation Cathedral. Probably the eldest in age and already having great authority in Russia, Theophanes taught the young master a lot.

Later Andrei Rublev became the most famous Russian painter. Together with his friend Daniil Cherny, he was invited to paint the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, which later served as a model for the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin. He decorated the Trinity Cathedral in the Spaso-Andronnikov Monastery with frescoes. In the work of Andrei Rublev, the idea of ​​a fusion of pictorial skill and religious and philosophical meaning was brought to perfection. This is especially evident in his famous icon "Trinity", created in the 10s. XV century. for the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The three wanderers depicted on the icon in the form of angels, sitting down at a meal, according to the artist, embody the Holy Trinity - the Holy Spirit is on the right, God the Father is on the left, and in the center is God the Son - Jesus Christ, who will be sent into the world to in order to direct the human race on the path of salvation through their sufferings. All three figures, both in appearance and in movement, constitute, as it were, a single whole. At the same time, everyone has their own thought, their own task, their own destiny. The icon is permeated with the idea of ​​sacrifice for the sake of people, the idea of ​​high humanism. Rublev was able to create a whole religious poem with the power of his brush, with a number of conventional symbols. Every Russian person looking at the icon reflected not only on the religious plot reflected in the icon, but also on his personal fate, woven into the fate of the long-suffering Fatherland.

The greatest flowering of icon painting in the XIV century. and the first half of the 15th century. falls at the time of Andrei Rublev, the most ancient Russian painter. The new rise of mass painting is associated with the name Dionysius. It was in the era of Dionysius that mass painting won first place among the numerous local icons, among which it occupied an equal position for a long time.

Old sources associate many works with his name, of which only a few works have survived, the image of "Hodegetria" from the Ascension Monastery to Moscow subsidized in 1482 (1484), the paintings of the Ferapontov Monastery, executed by him together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir. In 1500 - 1502, the icons of the Savior and the Crucifixion from the Pavlov-Obnorsky Monastery dating back to 1500. All the other works of renowned craftsmanship mentioned in the lives and chronicles are either hidden under the records or have disappeared irrevocably. The earliest work of Dionysius was the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Paphnutius Monastery, created between 1467 and 1477.

In 1484, Dionysius headed the icon-painting artel and made icons for the cathedral church of the Assumption of the Mother of God in the Joseph-Volokom monastery. His assistants were two sons - Theodosius and Vladimir, the elder Paisiy.

The Volokom monastery was one of the main repositories of the works of Dionysius and the masters of his entourage, because in the inventory of the monastery church, the sacristy and the library compiled in 1545 by the elder Zosima and the book keeper Paisiy, 87 icons of Dionysius, 20 icons of Paisius, 17 icons of Vladimir, 20 icons of Theodosius.

Dionysius, according to indirect data, attribute it to the time between 1502 and 1508. In 1508, when the handwritten artel was involved in the responsible work on the schedule of the court of the Annunciation Cathedral, then it was not Dionysius who was at the head, but his son Theodosius, and Dionysius, perhaps was no longer alive. Contemporaries highly appreciated the art of Dionysius and his work was called "Velma wonderful", and he himself was called "notorious" and "wise".

The main piece recent years his life is the wall painting of the Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery.

In the art of Dionysius there is a lot of spirituality, moral nobility, subtlety of feelings, and this connects him with the best traditions of Rublev. In the history of ancient Russian art, it is difficult to find a second similar example of the strength of artistic traditions, over a whole century of the time of Rublev and Dionysius.

Dionysius left a deep mark on Russian art of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. The icons, frescoes, miniatures and sewing of the school of Dionysius bear the imprint of his peculiar painting style.

Literary journalism painting architecture

5. Development of stone church and secular architecture

At the end of the XIII century. the construction of the first stone temples begins in the post-Mongol period. They are being built in Novgorod and Tver. And then the Trinity Cathedral was built in the monastery of Sergius of Radonezh, churches in Moscow monasteries. The Russian land is decorated with white-stone churches. New residential buildings and stone fortresses follow. They are being built where the danger of attacks is greatest - on the borders with the crusaders - in Izborsk, Koporye, on the border with the Swedes - in Oreshka. In the 60s. in Moscow, Dmitry Donskoy is building a white-stone Kremlin, which since then has withstood more than one siege of Lithuanians and Tatars.

The feudal war temporarily interrupts construction activity in the Russian lands. But Ivan III gives her additional acceleration. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century. architecture, as it were, crowns his efforts to create a powerful and united Russian state. The former Kremlin wall is replaced by a new one and a wonderful architectural monument is created, which to this day amazes with its beauty and majesty - the red-brick Moscow Kremlin with 18 towers. Its architects and engineers were Italians who were invited to serve in Russia, and the performers were Russian stone masters. The Kremlin combined the achievements of Italian fortress architecture and the tradition of building Russian wooden fortresses. This fusion of European and Russian art, apparently, turned the Kremlin into a masterpiece of world architecture.

Three remarkable Kremlin cathedrals, first of all, the five-domed Assumption Cathedral, the main temple of the country (1475-1479), built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fiorovanti, are raising their proud heads almost simultaneously. The second cathedral - the Annunciation, the home church of the grand ducal family (1484-1489), was designed and built by Russian craftsmen. At the beginning of the XVI century. after the death of Ivan III, the Archangel Cathedral was erected (1505 - 1508), which became the burial vault of the Rurik dynasty. It was built by the Italian Aloiso de Carcano or Aleviz, as he was called in Russia.

Simultaneously with the Kremlin wall and cathedrals in the time of Ivan III, the famous Faceted Chamber was created - the place of solemn "exits of the sovereign of all Russia", reception of foreign ambassadors, and other government buildings made of stone. Three years after the death of Ivan III, his heir will move to the newly rebuilt Grand Ducal Palace. So, over a decade or two, the center of Moscow changed its appearance. Moscow takes on the appearance of a stately and regal capital.

... Life and customs

The life of the peoples who became part of the Russian centralized state - the Russian people, the Volga, north-western Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes - fully reflected their general economic and cultural level. Most of the regions of Russia, Russian cities lay in the forest zone, far from the sea coasts; was on the internal river routes. The rhythm of life was here, in comparison with the dynamic countries of Europe, slower, more traditional, but against the background of neighboring nomadic states, or tribal formations of the East, or the Golden Horde lands and cities, Russia looked like a more civilized part of the world.

Although, in general, the way of life of the people changed slowly, the innovations concerned mainly large cities, primarily Moscow. There, especially in the upper strata of society, the main wealth was collected, which were profited in the new conditions primarily by landowners, clergymen, clerks, who acted as levers of the new administrative apparatus.

In the rich princely and boyar houses, surrounded by high and dense fences consisting of multi-tiered (two - three-story) chambers with many ceremonial residential chambers, rooms, porches, passages, oriental carpets were used for decoration and comfort, expensive metal (gold, silver, copper, pewter. There were handwritten books of religious and secular content. Weaved into leather, with expensive silver and gold buckles, they were of immense value. Their presence spoke not only of the cultural level of its inhabitants, but also of their strength and wealth. Such mansions were consecrated with candles, which stood in metal candlesticks.

The oak-wrought iron gates of such a courtyard were opened, and a wealthy owner of the courtyard, accompanied by servants, rode out either in a carriage or on horseback with expensive harness. It was already considered shameful for a rich man to walk on foot at this time.

Noble people, as a rule, wore clothes that were long to the heels - caftans, fur coats; they were decorated with precious stones, expensive silver and gold embroidery, embroidery. These clothes were made from expensive "overseas" fabrics - broadcloth, velvet, satin, damask. Fur coats were heavy, with fold-over sable collars, with long sleeves that much covered the hands. It was believed that the richer, heavier, and longer the fur coat was, the more dignity it gave to its owner, although it was inconvenient to move in it. But that was the fashion of the time at the top of society. Women had their own ideas about fashion and prestige. Contemporaries say that Russian women in the XIV-XV centuries. they whitewashed their faces without measure and painted their cheeks with beetroot, "blackened" their eyes, plucked out eyebrows and glued others in their place. As they say, nothing is new under the moon. The heads of noble people were covered during the exits. Even in summer, tall cylindrical fur, the so-called throat hats. The higher the hat, the more honor and respect for the prince or boyar.

Men and women wore jewelry - rings and monists, chains and belts with buckles of gold and silver. On my feet were boots made of fine leather - morocco - of different colors. They often also got off with gold, silver, pearls.

The diet of the rich included meat, poultry, fish of various varieties, including expensive red, all kinds of dairy products. On the tables in the princely, boyar mansions, one could see not only homemade meads and beer, but also "overseas" wines. Good cooks were appreciated in these courtyards, and feasts sometimes lasted for many hours. The dishes were served by "change", that is. walked one after another. Sometimes there were up to two dozen such “changes”.

Russian people of all classes, as before, appreciated a good bath. In the wealthy city courtyards and rural estates, these were comfortable and clean "soaps", sometimes with metal drains. Water was delivered to these “soaps” from wells; later, “water conduits” were led to the grand ducal mansions and houses of wealthy boyars, through which water flowed from the river or wells upward with the help of primitive pumps powered by hand or horse-drawn.

Significant changes in society affected primarily its richest part. The life of the common people - peasants, poor artisans, working people, "yaryzheks" sharply differed from the life of the upper classes. There were their customs, their traditions, their everyday difficulties and their joys. Compared to the XIII century. this way of life during the creation of the centralized state has changed little. As before, in the countryside, wooden log huts with a gable plank or thatched roof were built. The cattle were kept in the basement - the lower room of such a hut. The adobe ovens were fired in black, i.e. the smoke went out into the wild through the upper window. Sometimes the huts of wealthy peasants had cages with basements - summer unheated premises.

The same houses were mainly built in cities. Poor villagers and townspeople continued to build themselves semi-dugout huts (a bottom dug in the ground with a wooden superstructure) with centuries-old adobe stoves.

Both in the chopped huts and in the semi-dugouts, the furniture was home-made - wooden, there were benches along the walls, in the center of the hut there was a table on which there were dishes made of burnt clay and wood. The spoons were also made of wood. Such a hut was illuminated with a torch, which was inserted into the furnace slot for safety. Luchina burned slowly, smoked, crackled. When it burned out, another was stuck in its place. In her light, women were spinning, sewing, men mending horse harness, doing other work. In the evenings, in the light of a torch, people rested - they sang songs, told various stories, fairy tales, epics. Folklore and torch were inseparable.

People of labor and dress accordingly. Clothes were not supposed to interfere with their hard work: shirts made of homespun bachelor or cloth (in winter), tied at the waist with belts, the same homespun ports, peasants wore bast shoes on their feet, and city dwellers wore leather shoes. Bast shoes were light and comfortable footwear in the forest area. In addition, the rich leather shoes made the stride heavier and deteriorated quickly. And bast shoes could be thrown away and put on fresh, dry. In winter, they wore fur sheepskin coats over the shirt, and boots on their feet, which helped out in severe frosts.

Food in ordinary families is the most unpretentious, there was no time for "changes", not for fried swans and hazel grouses. Rye bread, kvass, porridge, jelly from oatmeal or pea flour, cabbage in all forms, turnips, radishes, beets, onions, garlic - that was the usual table of a commoner. Dairy products usually consisted of butter, milk, cheese, and cottage cheese. All this was of our own production. Meat was not often served on the table - only on holidays. But rivers and lakes gave the peasants an abundance of fish, and the forest - various berries, mushrooms, nuts.

In the countryside, on Easter, Nikolin's day, on the temple holidays of local churches, worldly folds were arranged - feasts, when the whole community sat down at common tables in the open air. And then began songs, dances to the harp, flutes, tambourines.

Buffoons also took part in such holidays. In cities, including Moscow, holidays were often accompanied by such a form of entertainment as fistfights. On one of the squares, the youth converged, to the delight of the audience, wall to wall. Sometimes they fought to death.

Wooden Rus at that time suffered especially severely from fires. This was due to feudal wars, as well as frequent invasions of Lithuanians and Horde. But even later, when life in a centralized state more or less calmed down, the fires still continued to bleed the country. This was facilitated by stove heating, lighting with torches, but they were rebuilt just as quickly. However, the restoration of dwellings and outbuildings took time and the forces of the people. And then there was a new fire, and everything started all over again.

But especially detrimental to the development of the country were the fires in large cities - the centers of trade, crafts, administration, and culture.

Conclusion

Russian culture is a historical and multifaceted concept. It includes facts, processes, tendencies that testify to a long and complex development both in geographical space and in historical time. A significant representative of the European Renaissance, Maxim the Greek, has an image of Russia that is striking in depth and loyalty. He writes about her as a woman in a black dress, pensively sitting "on the road." Russian culture is the same "on the road", it is formed and develops in constant search. History bears witness to this.

Most of the territory of Russia was entered later than those regions of the world in which the main centers of world culture were formed. In this sense, Russian literature is a relatively young phenomenon. Moreover, Russia did not know the period of slavery: the Eastern Slavs went directly to feudalism from communal-patriarchal relations. Due to its historical youth, Russian literature was faced with the need for intensive historical development. Perceiving and assimilating the cultural population of other peoples, Russian writers and artists, sculptors and architects, scientists and philosophers solved their problems, formed and developed national traditions, never limiting themselves to copying other people's samples.

The long period of development of Russian culture was determined by the Christian Orthodox religion. For many centuries, the leading cultural genres are temple building, icon painting, church culture. Significant contribution to the world art treasury of Russia up to the 13th century. brought in spiritual activities associated with Christianity.

Russian culture has accumulated great values. The task of today's generations is to preserve and increase them.

Bibliographic list

· V.M. Soloviev Russian culture from ancient times to modern days. - M .: White city, 2004

· History of Russia from ancient times to the present day .: I90 textbook / A.N. Sakharov, A.N. Bokhanov, V.A. Shestakov: ed. A.N. Sakharov. - Prospect, 2008

· Grabar I.E., Kamennova V.N. History of Russian art. Volume III, - M, 1954

Tags: Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries Abstract Culturology

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Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

In the historical and cultural process of the XIII - XV centuries. there are two periods. The first (from 1240 to the middle of the XIV century) is characterized by a noticeable decline in all areas of culture in connection with the Mongol-Tatar conquest and simultaneous expansion by German, Swedish, Danish, Hungarian, Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. The second period (the first half of the 14th - 15th centuries) was marked by the rise of national consciousness, the revival of Russian culture. Foreign invasions were especially disastrous for the southern and western lands. Therefore, the center of socio-political and cultural life gradually shifted to the northeast, where, for a number of reasons, from the middle of the XIV century. the hegemony of Moscow was established. It was the Moscow principality that, overcoming the feudal fragmentation of Russia, was destined to lead the struggle against the Golden Horde and by the end of the 15th century. complete both processes with the creation of a single and independent state.

1. Russian culture of the XIII-XV centuries

During the Middle Ages, the spread of literacy and knowledge proceeded in different ways in princely palaces, monasteries, trading cities and in the countryside. While in an unwritten village, knowledge about nature, man, the structure of the world, native history was passed on to the young generation by word of mouth in the form of agricultural signs, healers recipes, fairy tales, epic poetry, etc., enlightenment in cities, monasteries and patrimonial lands castles were based on books. Judging by the hagiographic literature of the XIV-XV centuries, the education of children began at the age of 7 years, first they were taught to read ("literacy"), and then to write. The ecclesiastical monopoly on education gave it a predominantly theological character.

Despite the severity of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, in the XIV-XV centuries. in Russia, the book business was developing. The gradual replacement of parchment with paper made books more accessible. By the XV century. there are already quite a lot of libraries known. Although most of the books of that time, apparently, died in the fire of military fires, in the fires of church censorship, etc., from the XIII-XIV centuries. 583 handwritten books have come down to us. Speaking about the dissemination of "book wisdom", one must bear in mind the collective use of medieval books. Reading aloud was then widespread in all countries and in all sectors of society.

Mathematical knowledge in the XIII-XV centuries. did not receive much development. The Old Russian digital system was extremely inconvenient: which made it difficult to perform precise mathematical operations.

Cosmological ideas Russian scribes drew from Christian theological literature, which interpreted the questions of the universe in a very contradictory way.

With the gradual development of trade, the restoration of diplomatic relations, the revival of pilgrimage in the XIV-XV centuries. there was an expansion of the geographic horizons of the Russian people. By this time, the compilation of many handwritten collections containing original and detailed descriptions Constantinople, Palestine, Western Europe and other lands.

Social ideas related to the understanding of man in the world and society, as well as political theories since the establishment of Christianity in Russia, basically fit into the framework of a religious worldview. In the XIV - early XV centuries. Russia, having perceived mainly the philosophical and theological currents of Byzantium, lagged behind her in terms of philosophical thinking. If in Byzantium two main ideological currents prevailed: the victorious hesychasm Hesychasm (from the Greek hesychia - peace, silence, detachment) - a mystical current, in a broad sense - the ethical-ascetic doctrine that arose in Byzantium in the IV-VIII centuries. , included a system of psychophysical control, which outwardly resembles yoga). and defeated rationalism, then in Russia the situation was more complicated. Here, three currents of philosophical and theological thought interacted and opposed: Orthodoxy in the traditional sense, weak shoots of rationalism (in the form of heresies) and hesychasm. Orthodox Christian ideology has always had a statement about the accessibility of supernatural phenomena to human senses (God acted on earth, appearing to people in visions, through angels and saints, the "appearance" of icons, miraculous healings, etc.). The ideologists of hesychasm developed the views of the early Christian teachers of the church, opening up to believers the possibility of knowing God, spiritual and even bodily union with God through the perception of divine energy. In Russia in the middle of the 15th century. in a fierce struggle, this doctrine was affirmed both as a method of individual asceticism (hesychasm of the "cell" level) and as a new style of spiritual and cultural life. It was especially difficult for hesychasm to inculcate on Russian soil as a system of philosophical thinking, entering into a certain contradiction with the inert practice of church life.

The doctrine of the inevitability of the end of the world and divine judgment over humanity, eschatology Eschatology (from the Greek eschatos) is the last, final. has always occupied a significant place in the Christian worldview. But in times of social upheaval, eschatological ideas took the form of a real expectation of the second coming of Christ. Russia experienced such a period in the XIV-XV centuries.

The fight against the Mongol-Tatars was main theme folklore of the second half of the 13th-15th centuries, both traditional (epics, legends) and new (historical song) genres are devoted to it.

Period XIII - XV centuries. in Russian literature is a transitional movement from Kiev literature, marked by ideological and statistical unity, to the literature of the future centralized Moscow state. In the literary process of this time, two main stages can be distinguished: XIII - XIV centuries. and XV century. The first begins with the Battle of Kalka (1223) and ends with a victory at the Kulikovo Field (1380). The literature of this period is characterized by heterogeneous trends. The leading genre of this time was the war story, the dominant theme was the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Poetic pathos, folklore images and a strong patriotic feeling are imbued with "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu", "The Tale of the Death of the Russian Land", "The Legend of the Feats and Life of the Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky" (a life that has features of a military tale), "The Tale of Shevkal "dedicated to the events of 1327 in Tver and others.

The second stage in the development of literature begins after the victory at the Kulikovo field and ends with the annexation of Veliky Novgorod, Tver and Pskov to Moscow. During these years, the idea of ​​the political and cultural unification of the Russian lands dominated in public thought and literature, which was increasingly associated with Moscow. Moscow literature, absorbing regional stylistic tendencies, acquired a general Russian character and occupied a leading place. The role of national self-awareness is evidenced both by the revival of the all-Russian chronicle writing at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries, and by a whole cycle of works, different in genre and style, but the same in topic - all of them are dedicated to the historical victory of Russia over the Tatars.

The idea of ​​all-Russian unity, having arisen in the pre-Mongol period, intensified in the difficult years of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In the XV century. the theme of the national liberation struggle was pushed aside by a new type of literature, distinguished by thematic and stylistic diversity, a more organic connection with folklore, and a striving for psychologism.

After the Mongol-Tatar devastation, Russian architecture experienced a period of decline and stagnation. The monumental construction stopped for half a century, the cadres of builders, in fact, were destroyed, and the technical continuity was undermined. Therefore, at the end of the XIII century. in many ways it was necessary to start over. Construction is now concentrated in two main areas: in the northwest (Novgorod and Pskov) and in the ancient Vladimir land (Moscow and Tver).

From the end of the XIII century. important changes took place in Novgorod architecture. The plinth was replaced by the local Volkhov flagstone, which, in combination with boulders and bricks, formed the uniquely plastic silhouettes of Novgorod buildings. Of the three apses, only one remained, which reorganized the altar part. As a result, a new type emerged, meeting the tastes and needs of the townspeople.

By the beginning of the XVI century. the total length of the Pskov fortress walls was 9 km. In 1330, the Izborsk fortress was built near the city - one of the largest structures Ancient Rus, which withstood quite a few German sieges and is still striking in its inaccessibility.

Pskov temples of small size were erected from local stone and whitewashed so that the limestone would not erode.

Centuries-old traditions, flexibility of architectural thinking, practicality have created a well-deserved fame for the Pskov architects and allowed them to make a significant contribution in the future to the architecture of a unified Russian state.

The first stone buildings in the Moscow Kremlin, which have not survived to this day, appeared at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries.

In the second half of the XIV century. tense relations with the Horde and Lithuania forced Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, later nicknamed Donskoy, to focus on the construction of fortifications. Soon after its construction (1367), the white-stone Kremlin was tested for strength by the troops of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

Painting of the first half of the 13th - 15th centuries is a natural continuation of the art of pre-Mongol Rus. But as a result of the invasion, art centers moved from south to north, to cities that escaped ruin (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Novgorod and Pskov), where there were many monuments of old art, and living bearers of cultural traditions have survived. The prolonged isolation of Russia from Byzantium, as well as the growing disunity of the Russian lands, pushed the growth of regional trends in art. In the XIII century. there was a final crystallization of the Novgorod and Rostov schools of painting, and in the XIV century. - Tver, Pskov, Moscow and Vologda. Russian medieval cultural

The evolution of painting in the XIII - XV centuries. best of all can be traced on the monuments of Novgorod, which, moreover, have survived more than in other cities. In the Novgorod icon, the drawing became more graphic, the coloring was based on a combination of bright contrasting colors. Red-background icons became a kind of "rebellion" against the Byzantine tradition.

XIV century. - the time of the brilliant flourishing of the monumental painting of Novgorod, the development of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek, who came to Russia in the 70s. XIV century. In 1378 he painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin, the frescoes of which have come down to us only partially.

2. Mongol-Tatar invasion and its consequences

Genghis Khan died in 1227. In accordance with his will, the vast possessions of the Mongols were divided into regions (uluses), headed by his sons and grandsons. The son of Genghis Khan, Ogedei, was proclaimed the great khan. One of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, Batu, inherited part of the land from the Irtysh and further west to those limits "to which the hooves of Mongolian horses reached." This territory still had to be conquered. The new ruler Ogedei sent his nephew Batu with a huge horde to the west to conquer the countries north and west of the Caspian Sea. The new Mongol campaign to the west, headed by Batu, became a general Mongol affair. It was attended by a number of Mongol princes, experienced military leaders, including Sudubei, the troops of a number of conquered peoples.

The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Mongolian state was nomadic cattle breeding. The desire to expand their pastures is one of the reasons for their military campaigns.

It must be said that the Mongol-Tatars conquered not only Russia, it was not the first state they took. Prior to that, they subordinated Central Asia to their interests, including Korea and China. From China, they took over their flamethrower weapons, and because of this, they became even stronger.

Tatars were very good wars... They were armed to the teeth, their army was very large. They also used psychological intimidation of enemies: in front of the troops were soldiers who did not take prisoners, brutally killed opponents. Their very sight frightened the enemy.

The first time the Russians encountered the Mongols was in 1223. The Polovtsi asked the Russian princes to help defeat the Mongols, they agreed and a battle took place, which is called the Battle of the Kalka River. We lost this battle for many reasons, the main one being the lack of unity between the principalities.

In 1235, in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a military campaign to the West, including Russia. In 1237, the Mongols attacked the Russian lands, and Ryazan was the first city to be captured. There is also in Russian literature the work "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu", one of the heroes of this book is Evpatiy Kolovrat. In the "Tale .." it is written that after the ruin of Ryazan, this hero returned to hometown and wanted to take revenge on the Tatars for their cruelty (the city was plundered and almost all the inhabitants were killed). He gathered a detachment from the survivors and galloped in pursuit of the Mongols. All wars fought bravely, but Evpatiy distinguished himself by special courage and strength. He killed many Mongols, but in the end he himself was killed. The Tatars brought Evpatiy's body to Batu, telling about his unprecedented strength. Batu was amazed at the unprecedented power of Evpatiy and gave the body of the hero to the surviving fellow tribesmen, and ordered the Mongols not to touch the Ryazan people.

After Ryazan, the Mongols took Moscow, which had resisted for a long time, and burned it down. Then they took Vladimir.

After the conquest of Vladimir, the Mongols divided and began to ravage the cities of northeastern Russia. In 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River, the Russians lost this battle too.

The Russians fought with dignity, no matter what city the Mongol attacked, the people defended their homeland (their principality). But in most cases the Mongols won anyway, only Smolensk was not taken. Kozelsk also defended for a record long time: seven whole weeks.

After marching to the northeast of Russia, the Mongols returned to their homeland to rest. But already in 1239 they returned to Russia again. This time their target was the southern part of Russia.

In the period from 1239 to 1240, the Mongols encroached on the southern part of Russia. First, they took Pereslavl, then the Chernigov principality, and in 1240 Kiev fell.

This was the end of the swift Mongol invasion. From 1240 to 1480 - the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, yoke:

· Firstly, it is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. Europe continued to develop, while Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

· The second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Also, farmers moved to the more northern regions of the country, to the safer from the Mongols. All of this delayed economic development.

· Third - the slowness of the cultural development of the Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.

· Fourth - the termination of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and carried out punitive campaigns with the disobedience of the principalities.

· The fifth consequence is very controversial. Some scholars say that the invasion and the yoke preserved political fragmentation in Russia, while others argue that the yoke gave an impetus to the unification of the Russians.

After the establishment of vassal dependence on the Mongol Empire, two lines can be traced in the policy of the Russian princes in relation to the conquerors. The first of them consisted in the desire to immediately achieve liberation from Mongol rule, to provide open armed resistance to the Horde. In conditions of significant inequality of forces, such actions were heroic, but hopeless. The attempts of some princes, for example, Daniel Galitsky, to continue the fight against the Mongols were in vain.

The second, more cautious and flexible line was implemented in the actions of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and especially his son Alexander Nevsky (Grand Duke of Vladimir in 1252-1263). This policy was based on the fact that, in addition to the danger from the east, Russia was threatened by the threat of knightly orders in the northwest. Maintaining peaceful relations with the khans of the Golden Horde, taking advantage of their contradictions with the rulers of the Karakorum, Alexander Nevsky did his best to strengthen his power as the eldest among the Russian princes. In this policy, the Vladimir prince was supported by the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church, who saw a great danger for themselves in the expansion of the Roman catholic church than in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde. Alexander Nevsky pursued a policy that made it possible for the Russian lands to survive.

Unfortunately, the successors of Alexander Nevsky were unable to appreciate the full complexity of the historical moment that had come. In Russia, a fierce struggle for the grand prince's throne unfolded again.

3. The struggle of Russia against the threat from the West in the XIII century

In the 13th century, simultaneously with the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, the threat of the conquest of the northwestern Russian lands by German-Swedish feudal lords arose.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. German feudal lords united in spiritual knightly orders seized most of the rich Baltic lands and created the Livonian Order - the main support of the interests of the Vatican's colonization policy in Eastern Europe.

In 1201, at the mouth of the Western Dvina, the Germans founded a fortress - the city of Riga. In 1222 the knights captured the city of Tartu (Yuryev), which was defended by Estonians (Estonians) and Russians.

The ideological rationale for the campaigns of conquest was provided by the Roman Catholic Church, calling for the early baptism of pagans and the strengthening of influence in the Baltic region.

After the conquest of the Baltic States, the Order's aggression was directed against Novgorod.

At the same time, the north-west of Russia was attacked by the Swedish feudal lords, who sought to conquer the part of the Baltic coast, which belonged to the Novgorodians. To prepare for the expansion, the Swedes captured the island of Ezel. The Danes founded Revel Castle (Tallinn). The Swedes tried to take control of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

In the summer of 1240, a Swedish flotilla with a five thousandth army entered the Neva and stopped at the mouth of its tributary. Izhora. The Novgorod army, led by Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, on July 15, 1240 won a quick and glorious victory. Attacking suddenly, along the river, they cut off the knights from the flotilla. With an army of 2 thousand people, they utterly defeated the Swedes. Novgorodians and citizens of Ladoga lost only 20 soldiers in this battle. For valor and courage, the people called Alexander Nevsky. Russia retained the shores of the Gulf of Finland and the possibility of trade exchange with European countries.

At the same time, the knights of the Livonian Order in 1240 captured the fortress of Izborsk. Taking advantage of the treason in the ranks of the defenders, they took Pskov during a seven-day siege. Looming threat of loss of Novgorod.

Alexander Nevsky was in Pereslavl because of a spat with the Novgorod boyars. According to another version, A. Nevsky's departure was arranged due to dissatisfaction with his popularity of Khan Batu. The attack of the German knights forced the Novgorodians to ask Alexander Nevsky to lead their army again.

Having given his consent, Alexander began to prepare for a future battle. Detachments from the Vladimir principality joined the Novgorod militia. In 1242, with the Suzdal army, he liberated the city of Koporye and returned the city of Pskov to Rus.

On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipsi, Battle on the Ice... Having built their troops in a wedge, the Germans tried to dismember the Russian regiments, and then defeat them in parts.

Familiar with this tactic, Alexander Nevsky formed his troops into three regiments and, letting the German wedge get bogged down in the warriors of the "middle regiment", inflicted defeat on the Germans with flank attacks. Their situation was aggravated by the fact that the clumsy knights were deprived of maneuver in close combat, and heavy armor broke through the fragile spring ice of Ladoga.

The victory at Lake Peipsi was of great importance. The independence of the Novgorod and Pskov lands and the integrity of Rus were preserved. The victory was achieved thanks to the heroism of Russian soldiers and the military leadership talent of Alexander Nevsky.

The raids of the Lithuanians were of great concern to Rus. Taking advantage of the Tatar presence and the weakening of resistance to invasions, they raided adjacent territories. Each time, going deeper into the borders of Russia, they passed to the cities of Torzhok and Bezhetsk. Alexander Nevsky defeated them three times and forced the Lithuanians to leave the northern territories of Russia alone.

After military victories, Alexander Nevsky brought great benefits to Russia in the field of diplomacy. He achieved compromise relations with the Tatars, strengthened the power of the Grand Duke and the state of the state in general. For this Russian Orthodox Church elevated Alexander Nevsky to the rank of saints.

Conclusion

In the XIII - XV centuries. in the most difficult conditions of the struggle for national liberation, in an atmosphere of patriotic upsurge, the unification of North-Eastern Russia took place. Moscow, the political and religious capital of the rising united Russian state, became the center of the formation of the Great Russian nationality. The growth of national self-awareness, the idea of ​​unity, the tendency to overcome regional tendencies in social thought, literature, art - all this testified to the emergence of an all-Russian (Great Russian) culture.

Bibliography

1. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. M .: EKSMO-press, 2006.

2. Anisimov E.V. History of Russia: IX - XXI centuries. from Rurik to Putin: textbook SPb, 2006.

3. Dolgov V.V. A brief outline of the history of Russian culture from ancient times to the present day. Izhevsk: Publishing House Udmurt University, 2006.

4. Bychkov V.V. Russian medieval aesthetics. - M., 2006.

5. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. - 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. M .: Mangruv, 2004.

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