What are the main advantages of Old Russian literature. The main features of Old Russian literature. The plot structure of the "Lay"

Medieval picture of the world.

Each period of historical and cultural development has its own perception of the world, its own ideas about nature, time and space, the order of everything that exists, about the relationship of people to each other, i.e. what can be called pictures of the world. They are formed partly spontaneously, partly purposefully, within the framework of religion, philosophy, science, art, ideology. Pictures of the world are formed on the basis of a certain way of life of people, become a part of it and begin to exert a strong influence on it. Medieval man proceeded from the picture of the world developed by Christianity, more precisely, from its western form, which received the name Catholicism... In the Christian Creed, compiled in the 4th century, the church is called one (only), holy, Catholic (in Church Slavonic - conciliar) and apostolic.

The Church is Catholic (conciliar), since it has its followers in all countries of the world and contains in its dogmas all the fullness of truth, the same for all Christians. After the division of Christianity in 1054 into western and eastern, the Roman Catholic and Greek Catholic churches appeared, and the latter more often became known as Orthodox as a sign of the unchanging confession of the right faith.

Christianity- the religion of salvation. For him, the essence of the history of the world is the falling away of mankind (in the person of Adam and Eve) from God, which subjugated man to the power of sin, evil, death, and the subsequent return to the Creator of the prodigal son who realized his fall. This return was led by God's chosen descendants of Abraham, with whom God makes a "covenant" (covenant) and gives them a "law" (rules of conduct). The chain of the Old Testament righteous men and prophets turns into a ladder ascending to God. But even guided from above, even a holy person cannot be completely cleansed, and then the incredible happens: God incarnates, he himself becomes a man, more precisely a God-man, free from sin by virtue of his miraculous birth "from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary". God the Word, the Savior, the Son of God appears as the Son of Man, a preacher from Galilee and voluntarily accepts a shameful death on the cross. He descends into hell, frees the souls of those who have done good, on the third day he is resurrected, appears to the disciples and soon afterwards ascends to heaven. A few days later, the Holy Spirit (Pentecost) descends on the apostles and gives them the power to fulfill the covenant of Jesus - to preach the Gospel ("good news") to all nations. Christian evangelism combines an ethics based on love for one's neighbor with the exploit of faith, which leads to the Kingdom of Heaven through the “narrow gates”. Its purpose is to deify the believer, i.e. transition to eternal life with God, is achieved by the assistance (synergy) of human efforts and God's grace.

In the medieval consciousness, both popular and elite, a large place was occupied by belief in magic, witchcraft. In the XI-XIII centuries. magic is relegated to the background, giving way to the expectation of the coming of the Kingdom of God on earth. A new flourishing of witchcraft, demonology, occultism falls on the 15th-16th centuries.

Overall medieval folk culture cannot be reduced only to the remnants of paganism and primitive beliefs. The world of images she created provided the richest material for the art of the Middle Ages and Modern Times, became an important and integral part of European artistic culture.

Features of Old Russian literature, its difference from the literature of modern times.

Old Russian literature is the solid foundation on which the majestic building of the national Russian artistic culture of the 18th-20th centuries is being erected. It is based on high moral ideals, faith in man, in his possibilities of unlimited moral improvement, faith in the power of the word, his ability to transform the inner world of a person, patriotic pathos of serving the Russian land - the state of the Motherland, faith in the ultimate triumph of good over the forces of evil, the universal unity of people and his victory over the hated strife.

Chronological boundaries of Old Russian literature and its specific features. Russian medieval literature is the initial stage in the development of Russian literature. Its emergence is closely related to the formation of an early feudal state. Subordinated to the political tasks of strengthening the foundations of the feudal system, it, in its own way, reflected the various periods of development of social and social relations in Russia in the 11th-17th centuries. Old Russian literature is the literature of the emerging Great Russian nationality, gradually developing into a nation.

The question of the chronological boundaries of Old Russian literature has not been finally resolved by our science. The understanding of the volume of Old Russian literature is still incomplete. Many works perished in the fire of countless fires, during the devastating raids of the steppe nomads, the invasions of the Mongol-Tatar invaders, the Polish-Swedish invaders! And at a later time, in 1737, the remains of the library of the Moscow tsars were destroyed by a fire that broke out in the Grand Kremlin Palace. In 1777, the Kiev library was destroyed by fire. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the manuscript collections of Musin-Pushkin, Buturlin, Bauze, Demidov, and the Moscow Society of Lovers of Russian Literature burned down in Moscow.

The main curators and scribes of books in Ancient Russia, as a rule, were monks, least of all interested in the storage and correspondence of books of secular (secular) content. And this largely explains why the overwhelming majority of the works of Old Russian writing that have come down to us is of a church nature.

The works of Old Russian writing were divided into "mundane" and "spiritual". The latter were supported and disseminated in every possible way, since they contained the enduring values ​​of religious dogma, philosophy and ethics, and the former, with the exception of official legal and historical documents, were declared "vain". Thanks to this, we present our ancient literature to a greater extent ecclesiastical than it actually was.

When starting the study of Old Russian literature, it is necessary to take into account its specific features, which are different from the literature of modern times.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the rukopisny nature of its existence and distribution. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections that pursued certain practical goals. "Anything that serves not for the sake of benefit, but for the sake of embellishment, is to be accused of vanity." These words of Basil the Great largely determined the attitude of ancient Russian society to the works of writing. The value of this or that handwritten book was evaluated from the point of view of its practical purpose and usefulness.

“It is great to be crawling from the teaching of the book, by books we seem to teach and teach the ways of repentance, we gain wisdom and refrain from the words of books; behold, the essence of rivers, soldering the universe, bese the essence of emanating wisdom, books are more inexhaustible depths, these are more consoled in sorrow, this is the bridle of restraint ... "- the chronicler teaches under 1037

Another feature of our ancient literature is the anon and the impersonality of its works. This was a consequence of the religious-Christian attitude of the feudal society to man, and in particular to the work of the writer, artist, architect. In the best case, we know the names of individual authors, “writers” of books, who modestly put their name either at the end of the manuscript, or in its margins, or (which is much less common) in the title of a work. At the same time, the writer will not accept to supply his name with such evaluative epithets as "Thin", "unworthy", "sinful". In most cases, the author of the work prefers to remain unknown, and sometimes hide behind the authoritative name of one or another "father of the church" - John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, etc.

Biographical information about the ancient Russian writers known to us, the volume of their work, the nature of social activities is very, very scarce. Therefore, if in the study of literature of the XVIII-XX centuries. literary critics widely draw on biographical material, reveal the nature of political, philosophical, aesthetic views of one or another writer, using the author's manuscripts, traces the history of the creation of works, reveals the creative individuality of the writer, then one has to approach the monuments of Old Russian writing in a different way.

In medieval society, the concept of copyright did not exist, the individual characteristics of the personality of the writer did not receive such a vivid manifestation as in the literature of modern times. Scribes often acted as editors and co-authors, rather than simple copyists of the text. They changed the ideological orientation of the rewritten work, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of their time. As a result, new editions of the monuments were created. And even when the scribe simply copied the text, his list was always somewhat different from the original: he made mistakes, omissions of words and letters, involuntarily reflected in the language the peculiarities of his native dialect. In this regard, in science there is a special term - "revision" (manuscript of the Pskov-Novgorod edition, Moscow, or wider-Bulgarian, Serbian, etc.).

As a rule, the author's texts of works have not reached us, but their later copies have survived, sometimes one hundred, two hundred years or more from the time the original was written. For example, the "Tale of Bygone Years", created by Nestor in 1111-1113, has not survived at all, and the edition of Sylvester's "story" (1116) is known only as part of the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, "The Tale of Igor's Regiment", written at the end of 80 -s of the XII century, was found in the list of the XVI century.

All this requires an unusually careful and painstaking textual work from the researcher of Old Russian literature: studying all available lists of one or another monument, establishing the time and place of their writing by comparing different editions, versions of lists, as well as determining in which edition the list is most consistent the original copyright text. These issues are dealt with by a special branch of philological science - text.

Solving difficult questions about the time of writing this or that monument, its lists, the researcher turns to such an auxiliary historical and philological science as paleography. By the peculiarities of the outline of letters, handwriting, the nature of the writing material, paper watermarks, the nature of the headpieces, ornaments, miniatures illustrating the text of the manuscript, paleography makes it possible to relatively accurately determine the time of creation of a particular manuscript, the number of scribes who wrote it.

In the XI-first half of the XIV century. the main writing material was parchment, made from calf skins. In Russia, parchment was often called "veal" or "haratya". This expensive material was, of course, available only to the propertied classes, and artisans and merchants used birch bark for their ice correspondence. Birch bark also served as student notebooks. This is evidenced by the remarkable archaeological discoveries of Novgorod birch bark letters.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated, and only paragraphs of the manuscript were marked with a red cinnabar letter - the initial, the heading - “red line” in the literal sense of this word. Frequently used, well-known words were written in abbreviated form under a special superscript -t and tl about m.For example, litharge (verb - says), bg (god), btsa (theotokos).

The parchment was pre-lined by a scribe using a ruler with a chain. The scribe would then put him on his lap and carefully write out each letter. The handwriting with the correct almost square outline of letters was called usta m. The work on the manuscript required painstaking work and great art, therefore, when the scribe was completing his hard work, he happily noted it. "The merchant rejoices after opening the helmsman and the bailiff and the wanderer to his fatherland, and the book writer rejoices, having reached the end of the books ..."- we read at the end of the Laurentian Chronicle.

The written sheets were stitched together in notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards. Hence the phraseological turnover - "read a book from blackboard to blackboard." The binding boards were covered with leather, and sometimes they were clothed in special frames made of silver and gold. A remarkable example of jewelry art is, for example, the salary of the Mstislav Gospel (early 12th century).

In the XIV century. parchment was replaced by paper. This cheaper writing material clung to and accelerated the writing process. The statutory letter is replaced by an oblique, rounded handwriting with big amount external superscripts - polustav in about m.In the monuments of business writing, a pattern appears, which gradually replaces the half-ustav and occupies a dominant position in the manuscripts of the 17th century .

A huge role in the development of Russian culture was played by the emergence of book printing in the middle of the 16th century. However, up to early XVIII v. mainly ecclesiastical books were printed, while secular and artistic works were still in existence and disseminated in manuscripts.

When studying ancient Russian literature, one very important circumstance should be taken into account: in the medieval period, fiction had not yet emerged into an independent area of ​​social consciousness, it was inextricably linked with philosophy, science, and religion.

In this regard, it is impossible to mechanically apply those criteria of artistry with which we approach when assessing phenomena to Old Russian literature. literary development new time.

Process historical development Ancient Russian literature is a process of gradual crystallization of fiction, its separation from the general stream of writing, its democratization and "secularization", that is, liberation from the care of the church.

One of the characteristic features of Old Russian literature is its connection with church and business writing, on the one hand, and oral poetic folk art, on the other. The nature of these connections at each historical stage in the development of literature and in its individual monuments was different.

However, the wider and deeper literature used the artistic experience of folklore, the more vividly it reflected the phenomena of reality, the wider was the sphere of its ideological and artistic influence.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature - and with t about r and zm. Its heroes are mainly historical figures, it almost does not admit fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even the numerous stories about "miracles" - phenomena that seem supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much a fiction of an ancient Russian writer as accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the very persons with whom the "miracle" happened.

The historicism of Old Russian literature has a specifically medieval character. The course and development of historical events is explained by God's will, the will of providence. The heroes of the works are princes, rulers of the state, standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder of feudal society. However, discarding the religious shell, modern reader without difficulty discovers that living historical reality, the true creator of which was the Russian people.

Similar information.

1. Boundaries and periodization of Old Russian literature. Description of the main stages.

According to many researchers, Old Russian literature took shape in the 10th century, but the works of this period have not reached us. Old Russian literature is the literature of the Russian Middle Ages, which passed in its development a long seven-century path, from the XI century. by the 17th century.

Already in the middle of the 17th century, new trends in literature began, oriented towards the West. But it was decided to include in the study all the literature of the 17th century and consider it as a transitional period. During the formation of literature, its "apprenticeship", the focus of political and cultural life was Kiev, "the mother of Russian cities", therefore the literature of the XI-first third of the XII century. it is customary to call literature of Kievan Rus This period is characterized by the relative unity of literature, which is determined by the interconnection of the two main cultural centers of the state - Kiev and Novgorod. This is a period of apprenticeship, with Byzantium and Bulgaria acting as mentors. Translated literature predominates. It is first dominated by religious texts, and then secular literature appears. The main theme is the theme of the Russian land and its position in the family of Christian nations.

Liter of the era feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th-first third of the 13th century). This period is associated with the emergence of regional literary centers in Vladimir, Rostov, Smolensk and others. There was a process of "assimilation" of the styles of Russian chronicle writing, hagiography, and oratory. The monumental-historical style prevails in literature. The most significant literary monuments of this period are "The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoned", "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu", "Zadonshchina", "Walking Beyond the Three Seas", "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia".

Liter of the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion (second third 13-1380). During this period, the main theme of literature is heroic, and the monumental-historical style acquires a tragic connotation and lyrical emotion.

Liter of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo (1380s to the 80s of the 15th century). This is a time of creative searches and discoveries in literature, which is caused by the rise of national consciousness and the rise of Moscow. A new moral ideal of the era is taking shape, which is reflected in the lives of the saints Epiphanius the Wise. The reader's interest in fiction and historical-journalistic literature is growing.

Liter of the Moscow centralized state (late 15-16 centuries). This stage was characterized by an unprecedented flowering of journalism, since there were many problems in the state. Tradition begins to prevail over the new, literature is going through a period of new monumentalism, interest in the biographies of historical figures is manifested.

Liter of the transitional stage (17th century). During this period, there is a clash of new and old principles. artistic creation... The development of the individual principle is visible in everything. After Nikon's church reform, literature was divided into democratic and official. The autobiographical beginning is growing rapidly, attention to the person's personality appears.

2. The main features of Old Russian literature and its artistic method.

The literature of other Russia aimed at creating spiritual ideal person. There were almost no portraits in the literature (only based on comparison or by the method of mixing the internal and external characteristics of a person), the landscape was used quite rarely and only for a symbolic purpose (except for the genre of walking). There was no satire in the works, there were only elements of humor and irony, only in the 17th century. satirical stories appeared. The purpose of writing any work was to teach. Up to the 17th century. there was no conscious fiction in the literature, historicism was obligatory in the works. But the literature was filled with legends. Also, literature had the obligatory features: journalism, patriotism, tradition. Old Russian literature was anonymous and had a handwritten character. Most of the works have an unknown author.

3. The peculiarity of the system of genres of Old Russian literature and the characteristics of the main genres. Article by N.I. Prokofiev "On the worldview of the Russian Middle Ages and the system of genres of Russian literature XI-X V1st century "

Several systems of genres existed and interacted in Old Russian literature: folklore and business writing, translated and original literature, both liturgical and secular. The selection of genres was based on the object of the image. Lyric genres: teachings and messages. A lesson is a genre designed to convey a system of political, religious or moral views to listeners or readers. They were didactic and solemn. A message is a genre designed to tell about events or express thoughts to an addressee remote from the author. Consists of 4 parts: script (external address), prescript (introduction, address), semantheme (message content), clause (good wish). There were also inserted genres, such as crying, praise, prayer. Epic genres: a genre-life that tells about the life of a real person, canonized after death. The composition of the life: an introduction (self-deprecation of the author, many toposes, an appeal to God for help), a central narrative (a story or mention of parents, a story about childhood, the life of the hero, his death and posthumous miracles), conclusion (praise or prayer to the saint). Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. A distinction is made between pilgrims, merchants, ambassadors, and explorers. In terms of composition, this is a chain of travel sketches, linked by chronological or topographic characteristics. A historical story is a genre that tells about a historical event. Divided into a military and a story about the princely and boyar crimes. Composition - preparation of the event, narration of the event, the consequences of the event. The narrator is usually a mysterious person. There is also another epic genre - a parable. Symbolic genres - vision, miracle, sign. Other genres - chronicle (could include all genres), patericon (stories about the life of monks).

4 genre of teaching in literatureXI- XIIcenturies Solemn teachings by Hilarion and Kirill Turovsky.

A lesson is a genre designed to convey a certain system of ideas to the reader or listener.
1 type - solemn (church and state problems)
Type 2 - didactic (moral and everyday problems)

The monument of oratorical prose of Kievan Rus belongs to solemn eloquence "A word about the law and grace of Metropolitan Hilarion" - approves the idea of ​​equality of Russia and the Russian people with all other Christian states and peoples. Comparison of the Old and New Testaments. Assessment of the deeds of Vladimir. Teaching against Judaism. The word is full of quotes and detailed comparisons from biblical texts; it activates the reader's perception due to the abundance of rhetorical figures.

Teaching Kirill Turovsky. See note 7 Kirill is an original thinker and artist. Perhaps, until Derzhavin, a writer of such strength, significance and height of moral feeling did not appear in Russian literature as Cyril - the conscience of his difficult and turbulent time. He subtly uses the wealth of traditional poetic means to create a text that is polyphonic in meaning and feel. Here the lofty and mundane plans seem to coexist, signifying the endless struggle between good and evil.

5. Characteristics of the genre of living. "The Life of Theodosius of Pechersky": composition, image of the main character, stylistics. Genre originality of "The Tale of Boris and Gleb".

Life- a genre that tells about the life of a historical person, canonized after death. Strict canon of writing, 3 parts in the composition: introduction (author's self-abasement, prayer, about sources), life of the saint (childhood, parents, growing up, life's journey, exploits, about death and posthumous miracles), praise or prayer to the saint.

About works - see tetr

The problem of the time of creation, genre originality of "The Tale of Boris and Gleb".

A whole cycle of works in Russian literature is devoted to Boris and Gleb. In addition to the chronicle tales, it includes "Reading about the life and destruction" of Boris and Gleb, written by Nestor, the anonymous "Legend and passion and praise" to the saints, to which in the Assumption collection adjoins the "Tale of Miracles", which arose on the basis of records compiled v different time ... The question of the relationship and chronology of individual works that make up the Boris-Gleb cycle is very difficult. There are several versions. According to the first, the "Legend" appeared first (at the end of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise), then "The Legend of Miracles", and on this basis Nestor wrote "Reading". According to the second version, "Reading" appeared first (at the end of the 11th century), together with the chronicle story, serving as a source for the author of the "Tale". But there is no consensus. The most perfect literary monument of the Boris-Gleb cycle is considered the anonymous "Tale", the author of which focused on the spiritual side of this historical drama. The task of the hagiographer is to depict the sufferings of the saints and show the greatness of their spirit in the face of imminent death. Boris knows in advance about Svyatopolk's plans to kill him, and he is faced with the choice either to go to "fight Kiev" and kill him, or by his death to initiate Christian relations between the princes - humility and obedience to the elder. Boris chooses a martyrdom. The psychological complexity of this choice is shown, which makes the picture of his death truly tragic, and to enhance the impact on the reader, the author repeats the scene of the murder of the prince three times. There are a lot of prayers in the "Tale", especially with inspiration Boris prays before his death. Crying intonations literally penetrate the "Tale", defining the main tonality of the story. All this corresponds to the hagiographic canon. But also the work is characterized by a tendency to individualize the hagiographic hero, which contradicted the canon, but corresponded to the truth of life. The image of the younger brother Gleb did not duplicate the hagiographic characteristics of the older one. Gleb is more inexperienced than his brother, therefore he has full confidence in Svyatopolk. Later, Gleb cannot suppress the fear of death, begs the murderers for mercy. The author created one of the first psychological portraits in Russian literature, rich in subtle emotional experiences of the hero. For Gleb, the lot of a martyr is still premature. The depiction of the hagiographic antihero Svyatopolk is psychologically reliable. He is obsessed with envy and pride, he thirsts for power, therefore he is characterized by the epithets "accursed", "nasty". For the crime he has committed, he is punished. It is broken by Yaroslav the Wise, and Svyatopolk dies on the run. He is opposed to Boris and Gleb, and Yaroslav, who became an instrument of divine retribution for the murderer. To surround the heroes with an aura of holiness, the author at the end speaks of their posthumous miracles and praises them, ranking them in a row with famous church figures. Unlike traditional living, "The Tale" does not describe the lives of the heroes from birth, but speaks only of their villainous murder. Pronounced

historicism also contradicts the canons of living. Therefore, we can say that the "Tale" combines both hagiographic elements and elements of divergence from the canon, in which the genre originality of this work is manifested.

Life is a genre that tells about the life of a real historical person, canonized after death. Russian lives were formed on the basis of Byzantine ones. The genre took shape in the first centuries of Christianity and was supposed to serve as an illustration to the Christian commandments. In the first lives, many miracles repeated the miracles of Christ. They were artless in form, but they are gradually becoming more complex. Signs of living: idealization (ideal saints, ideal evil); in composition - strict adherence to the canons (introduction - many toposes, self-deprecation of the author, appeal to God for help; central narration - story or mention of parents; story about the hero's childhood; story about his life and exploits; story about death and posthumous miracles; conclusion - praise or prayer to the saint); the narrator is always an educated and well-read person, distancing himself from the hero, bringing information about himself, clearly expressing his position in relation to the hero with the help of biblical quotes; language - Church Slavonic and lively colloquial, extensive use of tropes and biblical quotes. The Life of Theodosius of the Caves was written by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery. Following the genre canon, the author saturated the life with traditional images and motives. In the introduction, he humiliates himself, in stories about his childhood, Theodosius talks about his spirituality, talks about posthumous miracles. But Nestor violates one of the main genre rules - to portray -> a saint outside the specific signs of the times and peoples. The author seeks to convey the flavor of the era, which turns the work into a source of valuable historical information. From it we learn what charter regulated life in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, how the monastery grew and became rich, intervened in the struggle of the princes for the Kiev table, contributed to the development of the book business in Russia. The main part of the life sometimes resembles the "hagiographic chronicle" of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, since includes stories about spiritual mentors, companions and disciples of Theodosius. In addition to the monastic life of Theodosius, his participation in political life Rus, which also increases the value of the "Life" as a literary monument.

The Life laid the foundation for the development of the genre of the Venerable Life in Russian literature.

6. "Teaching His Children" by Vladimir Monomakh. Composition, stylistics, elements of autobiography.

Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction" is a wonderful monument of secular "teaching" literature. It is written in the form of a lesson to children. The advice given in it reflected not only his experience as a statesman, far-sighted politician and commander, but also literary education, writing talent, his ideas about the moral image of a Christian. This "Instruction" has come down to us in the Laurentian Chronicle. Compositionally, it consists of 3 parts: the teaching itself; Monomakh's story about his life, including campaigns; Monomakh's letter to Oleg Svyatoslavich. In this case, 2-3 parts serve as an illustration to the advice of the 1st part. Chronologically, these parts were arranged in a different sequence. There is a version that at first the Letter was written, then the main part, the lesson itself. And last of all, an autobiographical part was created, where Monomakh summed up his work. For the edification of his contemporaries and descendants, Monomakh created the image of an ideal prince who cares about the glory and honor of the Russian land. He unquestioningly obeys his elders, lives in peace with princes equal to himself, strictly observes Christian commandments and works incessantly. The autobiographical part contains many descriptions of the battles and campaigns of the prince. The stories about these trips are in the form of a listing, almost without concentrating on the details. This part ends with praise to God and gratitude that God has protected him all his life. Vladimir Monomakh was fluent in different styles of speech, varying them in the "Instructions" depending on the topic and genre. The autobiographical part is written in a simple, artless language, close to colloquial. "High syllable" is characteristic of ethical-philosophical reasoning, permeated with biblical quotes and rhythmically organized. Many fragments of the message to Oleg Svyatoslavich are permeated with a subtle lyrical feeling, for example, a request to let the widow of Izyaslav go to him in order to mourn him together.

The "instruction" of Vladimir Monomakh went beyond the scope of a private document. It has a philosophical depth of thought about God and man, life and death, valuable practical advice that have not lost their significance, poetic imagery of style, autobiographical elements, which helped the "Message" enter the "golden fund" of world literature.

7. The originality of the "Tale of Bygone Years" as a compilation of chronicles: subject matter, composition, intra-genre composition.

The appearance of each genre in literature is historically conditioned. Chronicle writing in Russia arose from the need of the early feudal society to have its own written history and was associated with the growth of the national consciousness of the Russian people. The question of the time of the emergence of Russian chronicle writing belongs to the category of controversial in science. Scattered records of historical events apparently already existed in the 10th century, but the chronicle did not yet have a purposeful character. It acquired it during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, at the beginning of the 11th century. the name of the first surviving chronicle collection of the early 12th century. has the title "The Tale of Bygone Years of the Monastery Fedosyev of the Caves Monastery, where did the Russian land go ... ichto felt the first princes in it, and from where the Russian land began to eat." In ancient times, a title pointed to a major theme rather than signaling a genre. “The tale of temporary summer, a work on which more than one generation of Russian chroniclers worked, is a monument of collective creativity. The first stage of work is attributed to the 30-40s. 11th century under Yaroslav the Wise. This stage was associated with the educational activities of the prince. The center of chronicle writing was Sophia of Kiev, where the prince; ^ tried to establish the Russian, not the Greek, as the metropolitan. The aggravation of the religious struggle for independence from Byzantium was also reflected in the chronicle, the core of which was "The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Rus." In form, this is not yet a chronicle, but rather a patericon. The second stage falls on the 70s. and is connected with another center of Russian education, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Compilation of the first Pechersk chronicle collection of the 70s. took place with the participation of Nikon. At this stage in the history of annals there is a tendency towards a strict chronology of events, without which history was devoid of movement. Dates could be taken from Easter tables, and historical information from the folklore of the Black Sea region. In the vault of Nikon church history gradually began to develop into a secular one. The compilation of the second Pechersk Chronicle Code is attributed to the 90s. 11th century and ascribed to Abbot John. The monastery at that time was against Svyatopolk. The journalistic orientation of the code was to glorify the former might of Russia and denounce the princes who were waging fratricidal wars. In the late 90s. there was a reconciliation between the prince and the monastery and in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, in his interests, a new collection of chronicles was created - "The Tale of Bygone Years", the first edition of which belongs to Nestor. From an oppositional chronicle it turns into an official one, it begins to bear an all-Russian character.

New editions of the Tale of Bygone Years are being created outside the Pechersky Monastery. The second edition was compiled in 1116. priest Sylvester, whom Vladimir Monomakh instructed to "straighten out" the work of Nestor, glorifying his political opponent. In 1118. the chronicle is again being edited in the interests of Prince Mstislav.

The Tale of Bygone Years contains 2 main ideas: the idea of ​​the independence of Russia and its equality with other countries (in the description of military operations) and the idea of ​​the unity of Russia, the Russian princely family, the need for an alliance of princes and condemnation of strife (The Legend of the Varangian Calling). Several main themes stand out in the work: the theme of the unification of cities, the theme of the military history of Russia, the theme of the peaceful activities of princes, the theme of the history of the adoption of Christianity, the theme of urban uprisings. In terms of composition, this is a very interesting work. It breaks down into 2 parts: up to 850 - conditional chronology, and then - weather. There were also articles where the year stood, but there was no record. This meant that nothing significant happened that year, and the chronicler did not consider it necessary to write it down. There could be several major narratives under one year. The chronicle includes symbols: visions, miracles, signs, as well as messages, teachings. The first, dated 852, was associated with the beginning of the Russian land. Under 862 there was a legend about the vocation of the Varangians, the establishment of the common ancestor of the Russian princes Rurik. The next turning point in the chronicle is associated with the baptism of Rus in 988, the final articles tell about the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Also, the compositional originality of the "Tale of Bygone Years" is manifested in the combination of many genres in this work. Partly because of this, messages of different content were sometimes placed under the same year. The chronicle was a collection of primary genre formations. Here we find both the weather record, the simplest and most ancient form of narration, and the chronicle story, chronicle legends. The closeness of the chronicle to hagiographic literature is revealed in stories about two Varangians-martyrs, about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery and its ascetics, about the transfer of the relics of Boris and Gleb, about the death of Theodosius of the Caves. Obituary articles were associated with the genre of gravestone words of praise in the annals, which often contained verbal portraits of deceased historical figures, for example, a description of the Tmutarakan prince Rostislav, who was poisoned during a feast by a Byzantine warrior. Landscape sketches are symbolic. Fancy natural phenomena are interpreted by the chronicler as "signs" - warnings from above about impending doom or glory.

In the depths of the Tale of Bygone Years, a military tale begins to form. Elements of this genre are already present in the story of Yaroslav's revenge on Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicler describes the gathering of troops and the march, preparation for battle, "I slash the evil" and the flight of Svyatopolk. Also, the features of the military story can be traced in the "Tale of the capture of Tsaryrad by Oleg", in the story "About the battle of Yaroslav with Mstislav."

8. The depiction of historical figures and the originality of the style of the "Tale of Bygone Years".

The central heroes of the chronicle are princes. Chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries depicted them from the point of view of the established princely ideal: a good warrior, the head of his people, generous, merciful. The prince is also a kind Christian, a fair judge, merciful to those in need, a person who is not capable of any crimes. But in The Tale of Bygone Years there are few ideal princes. First of all, these are Boris and Gleb. All other princes are presented more or less versatile. In the annals, the squad supports the prince. The people are most often depicted as a passive force. A hero emerges from the people and saves the people and the state: Nikita Kozhemyaka; a youth who decides to make his way through the enemy camp. Most of them have no name (they are called by age), nothing is known about their past and future, each has an exaggerated quality that reflects a connection with the people - strength or wisdom. The hero appears in a certain place at a critical moment. The depiction of the heroes of the initial chronicle is greatly influenced by the influence of folklore. The chronicle gives the first Russian princes (Oleg, Olga, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir) laconic, but vivid characteristics, highlighting the dominant feature in the image of the hero, moreover, of an individual order. In the image of Olga, the wisdom of a statesman is poeticized, which is expressed in the search for a common faith and in revenge on the Drevlyans. The characterization of Svyatoslav is epically laconic. This is a straightforward and courageous person, easy to communicate with soldiers, he preferred victory in open battle to military cunning. He always warned enemies that he was preparing a campaign against them. The characterization of Svyatoslav is given through his actions, accomplished feats. In later fragments of the chronicle, the image of a good Christian prince comes to the fore. The characteristics of these princes are official, devoid of individual signs. A murderous prince could turn into a righteous man; Yaroslav the Wise turns from a rebellious son into an instrument of divine punishment for Svyatopolk the Accursed. The chronicle mixes the style of monumental historicism, epic style and church style. In the stories, made in the style of monumental historicism, everything is known in advance, the fate of the hero is predetermined. And in the epic parts, the effect of surprise is often used. Also, a feature of stylistics is the mixing of various genres in one chronicle, the frequent contraction of different events to one year (especially if this event lasted several years).

9. The originality of the content and form of the Novgorod chronicle of the era of feudal fragmentation. "The Tale of the Battle of the Lipica River".

The basis of the Novgorod 1 Chronicle was the records that were kept at the court of the bishop. The chronicle itself has preserved the names of some authors, for example, Herman Voyaty and his successor, sexton Timofey. Chroniclers often expressed their point of view on the events described. The Novgorodians themselves chose princes and treated them quite freely, so the prince was not the main person of the Novgorod chronicle. The main content of the chronicle was made up of records about the life of the city and the entire Novgorod land. Pictures of disasters and natural phenomena appear repeatedly. Much attention is paid to the various activities of the townspeople, especially the construction and painting of churches. The number of people mentioned in the chronicle is very large: townspeople, mayor, etc. Novgorod chroniclers were inclined to be short, most of the records were weather. All Novgorodians were patriots of their city, therefore, in the descriptions of battles, they tended to exaggerate the number of enemies and underestimate the number of Novgorodians. The event type is very rare and stands on the border with the informative one. Legendary plots were used quite often. A striking distinguishing feature of the Novgorod Chronicle is the direct expression by the author of his opinion about people. A genre that can be confidently identified in the annals is a military tale. The types of military stories in the Novgorod chronicle are the same as in other principalities (informative and event-based), but the boundaries between them are much more shaky. In military stories, little attention is paid to heroes, although the names of characters mentioned in them are much larger than in other chronicles, since the authors name the names of princes, governors, and individual townspeople. Descriptions of battles are very brief (most of the chronicles were created by clergy far from military events). The chroniclers cared about the glory of their city, they were extremely reluctant to write about the defeats of the Novgorodians. They often resorted to methods of silence about the results of the battle, instead of which it was reported about the death of individual Novgorodians, it was mentioned that more enemies had died. One of the few event stories in the Novgorod Chronicle is the story of the battle on the Lipitsa River in 1216. The first part tells in detail about the events that preceded the battle. The beginning of the campaign of Mstislav with the Novgorodians against Yaroslav is dated. Then the movement with battles is described near small cities, which the allies or Yaroslav himself claimed, there are no descriptions of the battles. The exact location of the troops that came to the battle is indicated. The second part is about the battle. Its description is very short. The third part tells about the consequences: Yaroslav's flight to Pereyaslavl; the arrest of prisoners of Novgorod, which killed many; the expulsion of Yuri from Vladimir and the reign of Constantine there; the return of Novgorodians from Pereyaslavl and the arrival of Yaroslav to Novgorod. The heroes of the work are very poorly characterized, as in most of the Novgorod stories. The author emphasizes the correctness of Mstislav and his desire to avoid bloodshed. Simple Novgorod warriors also appear. It is they who determine how they will fight and win. The narrator openly and consistently expresses his position. He rejoices at the victory of Mstislav, he is surprised that "poidoshasynove to father, brother to brother ..." (during the gathering of the princely coalitions). The author's position, as in many Novgorod stories, is manifested in the exaggeration of the forces and losses of the enemies and the belittling of the forces and losses of the Novgorodians. Speech actors-spoken, concise. In different parts of the work, military formulas are used: "mnogybebita, and some withdrawals, and iniiubezhash", less numerous than in informative stories.

10. Review of translated literatureXI- XIIIcenturies Description of the Apocrypha.

Christianity came to Russia from Byzantium through the mediation of the Yugoslavian countries, primarily Bulgaria. Therefore, the first books that Russians began to read were translations from Greek, often made by Bulgarian scribes. In the beginning, the main theme was the theme of world history. Byzantine chronicles were very common in Russia, among which were the Chronicle of George Amartolus and the Chronicle of John Malala. A feature of the narrative was the combination of dynastic ranks with entertaining stories about the destinies of historical figures and events of the past. The "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus is considered a masterpiece of translation art. This work tells the story of the destruction of Jerusalem in the first person, because Joseph was an eyewitness to these events. "History" is imbued with a sense of emotion, pictures of war are created on an apocalyptic scale. The novel about Alexander the Great was especially popular in Russia. Its basis is not historical accuracy, but the action-packed story about the hero's adventures, about the wonderful lands where fantastic creatures are found. The personality of the commander also acquired a legendary character. Macedonian was attributed to a semi-divine origin, campaigns in Sicily, the conquest of Rome. His death is also shrouded in mystery. In addition to historical chronicles, hagiographic literature, oratorical prose, apocrypha, and natural science literature also penetrated into the country. Of the translated hagiographic literature, the most famous are the translations of the lives of Alexy, the man of God; Andrey the Fool; George the Victorious and others. They had no less circulation in Russia than the lives of Orthodox saints. Nicholas the Wonderworker enjoyed great reverence in Russia. Many religious traditions and legends were associated with his name; he was a favorite hero of folk spiritual poetry. There were about 40 works about him. Known in Russia since the 11th century. The Life of Alexy, the Man of God, gained particular popularity in the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (the saint was his patron). This life had a great influence on many hagiographic monuments of Rus. The Indian patericon (translations of India) and the Sinai patericon (translations of the Sinai area) were also very famous in Russia. The Patericons did not contain integral biographies of the saints, but short stories about the most striking episodes of their ascetic activity. From oratorical prose the most famous collection was the Byzantine "Bee". It consisted of short stories, anecdotes, sayings, quotes that glorified virtues or condemned vices. A kind of "natural science encyclopedia" of the Middle Ages was the translated "Physiologist". It contained information about the flora and fauna, sometimes exotic, and often fantastic (for example, crocodiles cry, devouring a victim, lions sleep with open eyes, and the phoenix bird is able to rise from the ashes). The "physiologist" symbolically interpreted the habits and properties of animals, correlating them with the state of the human soul. The general idea of ​​the structure of the universe was formed by "Christian topography", and the commentary on the story of the creation of the world in 6 days contained "Six days". Interest in the apocryphal lit-re-non-canonical books was also stable in Russia. They are divided into books that do not contradict the dogmas of Christianity and are calmly accepted by the church, and those that contradict the canonical ones and are prohibited by the church. There are about 30 apocryphal related to the Old Testament, and the same number associated with the Gospel. The apocrypha were oral, it is customary to divide them into 3 groups: Old Testament (the legend “How God created Adam” - the authors admitted that the devil also took part in the creation of man); New Testament (apocrypha about the life of Christ and his disciples) and eschatological (telling about a journey to the afterlife, for example, "The Virgin's Walking Through Torments" - The Mother of God wants to see how sinners live in hell).

11. Characteristics of the genre of walking. Features of "The Walking of Hegumen Daniel" as the first monument of the pilgrim variety of the genre. The work of NI Prokofiev "Walking: travel and literary genre."

Walking is a genre that tells about a real-life journey. Distinguish between pilgrimage, merchant, ambassadorial and road trip. Signs of the genre of walking: events are really historical; by composition - a chain of travel sketches connected by chronological or topographic characteristics; the narrator is not necessarily educated, but has the obligatory personal qualities - courage, energy, diplomacy, tolerance, he does not seek to embellish, idealize events; language - simple, colloquial Old Russian, the use of foreign words for the nominative function, comparisons are most often used. In the travel literature of Ancient Russia, Prokofiev singles out 5 groups of "walks": documentary and artistic works of essay order, compiled on the basis of personal impressions; "Travelers" - short practical directions for the route; "Skaski" - records of oral stories of Russian people who have visited foreign countries or foreigners who came to Russia; article lists-reports of Russian ambassadors about a trip abroad with a diplomatic mission; legendary or fictional travel stories composed for publicistic purposes. The first example of this genre is “The Pilgrimage of Hegumen Daniel to Palestine”. The work begins with a rather extensive introduction. Daniel uses self-deprecation, talks about the purpose of writing: so that people who could not travel receive spiritual pleasure. But the second side of his goal is work, creating a “buy-in” for the talent given to him. In terms of composition, this is a chain of travel sketches connected according to the topographic principle. For "Walking" is characterized by the fusion of the legendary, the source of which could be the Bible, the Apocrypha, folk legends, with the real, topographically reliable. Features of "The Walking of Hegumen Daniel": descriptions of holy places; many real landscape sketches, he strives for the utmost concreteness of the depicted; retelling or mentioning hagiographic, biblical or apocryphal legends; the story of the journey itself and the reasoning about the narrator. The versatility of the hegumen's interests is also striking: in addition to the holy places, he is interested in practical issues - the irrigation system of Jericho, the extraction of incense on the island of Cyprus, the special layout of Jerusalem, built in the form of a 4-pointed cross. The style of the work is characterized by laconicism and stinginess of linguistic means. Daniel avoids abstract words, preferring simple vocabulary of a concrete everyday character. The epithets are usually descriptive or evaluative. The simple language is explained by the fact that from the very beginning the abbot gave himself the intention to write simply and understandably for ordinary people. The Walking of Hegumen Daniel ”is valuable as a comprehensive guide for Russian pilgrims and a source of archaeological information about Jerusalem. In his work, the first in its genre, the basic canons of writing movements were formed, which later became the hallmarks of this genre.

12. Kiev literature of the era of feudal fragmentation. Kiev Chronicle. South Russian story about Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians.

13. History of origin, intra-genre composition, peculiarities of the style of the "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon"».

The genre of "patericon", a collection of works about saints from any one locality, had a wide geographical scope of circulation and a long history before it began to develop in Russian literature. Translated patericons were known in Russia as early as the 11th-12th centuries. In Russian literature, the first work of this genre was the patericon of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, founded in the middle of the 11th century. The Patericon was created in the 12th and early 13th century. Its new editions were created in the 14,15,17 centuries. this patericon was a genre-ensemble, the structure of which was complex and flexible: the composition of the patericon and the principle of the arrangement of texts in it changed from editorial office to editorial office. Very early it included chronicle articles related to the history of the most famous monastery, as well as works of the Fedosiev cycle (the works of Theodosius of the Caves, "Life" and "Praise" to the saint). The basis of this patericon is the correspondence of the Vladimir Bishop Simon with the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Polycarp. In this correspondence, questions were raised about the moral behavior of the monks and personally of Polycarp himself, who desired strength and power. And, dreaming of abbess, he turned to Simon for help. The intra-genre composition of the patericon is very diverse: it contains messages, paterican lives, teachings, miracles, visions, signs, oral monastic legends. All paterican lives are of an action-packed nature. The main characters are demons along with the monks. Direct speech is very often used. Only in the didactic parts are Slavic vocabulary and quotations present. There is no integral narrative about the life of the saint from birth to posthumous miracles in the patericon's life; the author is limited to one or several episodes, but the most striking and significant. The rest of the news about the saint is given in a condensed form. These Lives are very laconic, artless, they contain a lot of stereotyped comparisons, few allegories and rhetoric. The patericon's stories arose on a folklore basis, preserving the epic nature of the images, the fantastic manner of the narration and many dialogues. The patericon's style is short and artless, a lesson in the form of an entertaining and action-packed story. Features of the patericon: presentation of the lives of heroes, informativeness, lack of idealization of heroes. These features are inherent in the epic style of the piece.

14. Time of creation, The main idea, plot and composition of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign." The work of VF Rzhiga "Composition" Words about Igor's Campaign. "

The work was discovered in 1788-1792. Musin-Pushkin. Two directions arose in the study of the Lay: the text as an ancient monument and the skeptical direction (it was believed that the Lay was a forgery of the late 18th century). One of the adherents of the theory of the authenticity of the Lay was A.S. Pushkin; he was also studied by Buslaev (the author of the anthology for grammar schools), Potebnya (unified the spelling of all words of the work, established the poetic characteristics of the Lay), Barsov (wrote a work about the Lay , where he summarized everything that has been said about him for 100 years, gave his own interpretation of "dark places", created a part of the dictionary-reference book "Lay"). The skeptical school reached its zenith in the 1920s and 1930s. 19th century The group of researchers was headed by Kochenovsky. Belikov, Katkov, Aksakov and others also adjoined it. They proceeded from low knowledge about ancient Russian culture. It was believed that words from different Slavic languages ​​were used in the Lay. Skeptics ignored the fact that traces of the work were found in other ancient Russian monuments. Until 1852, skeptical views remained unchanged. But this year a list of "Zadonshchina" was found, where the traditions of the "Lay" stood out very clearly. Skeptics are fading into the background, and the last surge of skeptical theory was in the 60s. 20th century Zimin brings new arguments: he published a number of articles and summarized his observations in a book that was not published in large circulation. The main points of his theory: "The Word" was written in the beginning. 90s 18th century; associated with the Russian-Turkish war; the author is Bykovsky. Baza-Bykovsky was a poet, Musin-Pushkin also made his own amendments. He argued that the "Lay" had many folklore sources ("Zadonshchina"), there are many Turkisms in it. The time of the creation of "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" is the last 15 years of the 12th century. a number of researchers call the more probable time 1185-1187. (between the time of the campaign and the death of Vladimir Pereyaslavsky and Yaroslav Galitsky, mentioned in the work). The historical basis for the creation of this work was the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 by the Russian princes under the leadership of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. It was written after this tragic event. In the work, the idea of ​​the need for the unity of Russia and the end of the princely feuds is very strong. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in the Kiev Chronicle describes the same events that are described in the "Lay". It is clearly divided into 3 parts: preparation of the battle-battle-aftermath of the campaign. There are no lyrical fragments in this story, while the Lay is full of them (for example, Yaroslavna's lament). There are similarities in the central parts: they are, as it were, divided into 2 fragments - 2 battles. But in the "Word" there is one more part - it includes the training of troops and a campaign. In the "Tale" the first part is detailed and expanded - there is a description of the troops, the exact date of the start of the campaign, a description of the sign, which is interpreted not by the author, but by the prince and the squad. In the Lay, this part is included in the second, and the introduction is of a lyrical character. The author addresses the audience, talks about the purpose of his work (which is not in the "Tale"). The third part, which tells about the consequences of Igor's campaign, in "The Tale" begins with a fragment of the gathering of troops by Svyatoslav to repulse the Polovtsy, and then tells about the Polovtsian campaign against Russia (an independent military tale, introduced into the story of Igor's campaign). In the Lay, this part begins with a lyrical fragment-crying of Yaroslavna, and then tells about Igor's escape from captivity with many lyrical fragments, a description of the forces of nature that help Igor. Both works end with the same event - Igor's escape from captivity and his return home, described in detail. The main difference between these works is the lyrical fragments (in the "Word" they are in abundance, but in the "Tale" they are absent). There are also differences in composition.

The plot-compositional design of the Lay is unique, it does not obey the canon of any of the genres of Old Russian literature known to us. Also, the construction of the monument is distinguished by artistic perfection and expediency. The composition text is usually divided into 3 parts: the introduction, the main part and the conclusion. The introduction is lyrical. The author addresses the audience, talks about the purpose of writing the Lay, recalls Boyana, who glorified the deeds of the princes. The author points to 2 time layers that determine the chronological framework of the narration: "from old Vladimir to the present Igor", we are talking, most likely, about Vladimir Monomakh, tk. the idea of ​​the word was relevant precisely in his era of reign. There is already a striving for journalism, for the relevance of the work. The central part of the work is divided into 3 sub-parts: plot-preparation by Igor of the battle, solar eclipse, 2 battles with the Polovtsy; a combination of lyric and lyric-publicistic fragments - Svyatoslav's dream, the interpretation of this dream, Svyatoslav's "Golden Word", at the end partly the idea that the Russian princes need unity to fight not only the Polovtsians, but also all external enemies. Here there is a historical digression about Vseslav, an older contemporary of Monomakh, who participated in numerous strife, but did not achieve success. The third sub-part connects the lyrical fragment - the lament of Yaroslavna - with the end of the plot - the story of Igor's escape from captivity, where there are many landscape sketches in the description of the natural forces helping Igor. Conclusion-praise to Igor. With the help of lyrical fragments and historical digressions, the author managed to show the pernicious influence of the uncoordinated actions of the princes on the fate of Russia. main idea"Words" is expressed in the central part when the action takes place in Kiev. Kiev is thought of as the unifying principle of the Russian princes. Landscapes occupy the most important place in the graphic system of the Lay. They can be divided into 3 groups: dynamic, symbolic, static. Dynamic (promoting or opposing heroes) is used in subparts 1 and 3; static (denoting the time of day or fixing any state of nature) appear in the same place, there are very few of them; the symbolic ones are associated only with Igor's campaign and will have the images of the luminaries. The composition of the Lay combines both lyrical and epic principles, which determines its originality.

15. Features of the depiction of historical persons in the "Lay of Igor's Host".

There is no one main character in The Lay. Each part has its own main character. This is Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaroslavna. In addition to the main characters, there are also minor ones, for example, the images of the princes of the past in historical digressions. Each historical person in the "Lay" is depicted in its own way. Igor is depicted in the way that the heroic princes of military tales were often depicted. This is a warrior and a courageous and brave man. His desire for fame is very strong and sometimes overshadows the mind. His unreasonableness makes the author almost never show him in battle, because no heroism can justify a prince who does not think about the fate of his native land. The author draws the image of Igor with the help of metaphors, comparisons, characteristics of other heroes of the work. Igor for the author is an example of erroneous princely policy, and praise is given to him only because he came to Svyatoslav, i.e. realized the need for unity. The author portrays Svyatoslav as an ideal hero. He is opposed to Igor and Vsevolod. His image is the image of a powerful prince-military leader who defeated the Polovtsians thanks to unity. He is also characterized by his speech: wise, reasonable statements, even prophetic. It is he who utters the famous "golden word" and sees a prophetic dream about the death of Igor's army. The image of Yaroslavna was created on the basis of a lyrical crying fragment. Its image is a generalization, it is for this that such a genre has been chosen for its characteristics - purely folk. Yaroslavna is depicted as a kind of symbol of peaceful Russian people, in contrast to the historically described princes. The power of her love, which helps Igor to escape from captivity, is the power of all Russian women. In addition to the main characters, the author depicted real-life historical figures who are minor characters in the Lay. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Igor's brother. He is younger than Igor, but he also ... has a brother trait - the heroism of a warrior. This is the only person shown by the author in battle, and his actions are similar to those of the heroes. He is shown in battle as an epic hero, his description is saturated with hyperboles, his selflessness is shown, with which he chops down the enemy. It embodies the best traits of a warrior. The rest of the minor characters are shown in a very generalized way. But apart from real persons participating in the battle, the Lay contains images of the princes of the past, which are spoken of in moments of historical retreats. Oleg Svyatoslavich is condemned by the author: "TyboOleg, we will smash sedition and sow arrows on the ground." There are 2 metaphors here: the sword-weapon of the defender of Russia, and arrows that dotted the ground instead of grains. Oleg is the sower of strife between the princes. Prince Vseslav of Polotsk appears as a man endowed with supernatural abilities, "prophetic". Episodes of his life are conveyed using metaphors, the meaning of which can be understood from the chronicle. The author has an ambiguous attitude towards him: on the one hand, he participates in civil strife, and the author condemns him, but on the other hand, Vseslav himself more than once becomes a victim of these civil strife. The third image of the prince of the past is the image of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. His characteristics are almost nonexistent, he is mentioned only in connection with his tragic death. He perishes from the Polovtsians very young, and the author shows in his image the images of many young men who suffered the same fate after the battle with the enemies. In the images of the princes of the past, the author reminded readers of the disastrous consequences of internecine wars and the fragmentation of Russia.

16. The problem of the rhythmic organization of the text "The Lay of Igor's Host". The originality of the poetic language of the work.

The problem of the rhythmic organization of the Lay is one of the most difficult problems in literary criticism. It is not known whether this is prose or poetry, since not all rhythmic patterns have been identified. The most convincing is the concept of Stelletsky. He tried to identify the patterns of rhythmic units, main feature which he considered the completeness of intonation with a decrease in tone towards the end of the unit. He identified 2 groups of these units: lines of archaic rhythmic-intonational verse and lines of rhythmically organized prose. Various syntactic means were used to create a rhythm: anaphores, epiphores, syntactic parallelism, homogeneous members. Following his theory, the lines written in verse are limited to beginnings and refrains: “O Russian land! Already for shelomyanemesi \ ",". For the Rus land, for the wounds of Igor, Svyatoslavich's buoy \ "and so on. But Stelletsky's theory is not perfect. For example, he suggested that for ancient Russian literature, word stress did not matter, although for poetry it is an important factor. It is impossible to check the influence of stress on the rhythmic structure of the Lay, because there is no accentological dictionary for that time. And therefore, although the work of Stelletsky gave many regularities, the problem of the rhythm of the work is still relevant.

The poetic language of the Lay is created at the expense of many syntactic means, tropes, lyrical means (for example, Yaroslavna's crying).

17. "The Word about Igor's Campaign" and oral folklore.

Practically obsolete can be considered the view of researchers who believed that "The Word" is a folklore work, and who tried to find analogies for it in the field of folk art genres. But despite this, a lot of traditions of folklore can be traced in the work. As Likhachev said, "The Word" from folklore genres is closest to crying and words. There are traditions of CNT in pictorial and expressive means: constant epithets, metaphorical images familiar to folk art (for example, battle-feast and battle-sowing, harvest), tautological combinations (“no thought, no thought, no think,”), personifications (“Nichit grass miserable, and the tree bowed down with tightness to the earth ”). Also, folklore traditions are used in the images of heroes, in some descriptions. For example, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, who looks like an epic hero during a battle, exaggerated his strength and power. Svyatoslav also combines heroic qualities: wisdom and strength. Symbolic landscape descriptions can also be considered a continuation of the traditions of the CNT. Fantastic events (nature's help to the prince during his escape from captivity), symbolic events (solar eclipse, bloody dawn, cries and barking of animals before the battle) are also remnants of folklore performances. Summarizing what has been said, it can be argued that the connection with CNT is manifested at the genre level (crying, lamentations, proverbs, epithets), as well as with the help of artistic means (psychological parallelism, repetitions, epithets).

The search for the author of the Lay is one of the main tasks of studying this monument. Since his main idea is the idea of ​​the need to unite the forces of all princes to protect Russia, and his features make him, according to various researchers, related to Novgorod, Galicia-Volyn, Kiev and other traditions, the author of this work may be a native of various lands. For example, from Kiev (according to Rybakov's hypothesis) or the Pskov principality (according to Gogeshvili's hypothesis). Zimin, a representative of the skeptical direction in the study of the Lay, believed that it was created by the archimandrite of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery, Joel Bykovsky, and Musin-Pushkin slightly modified it. Despite the abundance of hypotheses, the question of the authorship of the Lay can be considered deadlocked, because none of the hypotheses naming the author of the monument can be considered true, because there are no sufficient grounds for this, and the emergence of new historical persons, who are credited with the authorship, only confuses readers, without introducing anything important into the study of the work itself.

19. Genre originality of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign". The history of the "Words" translations, their types and features.

The solution to the problem of the genre of the work is still ambiguous. The opinion about the folklore genre "Lay" can be considered practically outdated. This work is considered as a work of the book tradition, which has some folklore features. I.P. Eremin believed that it belongs to the genre of solemn political eloquence. This version is convincingly proven, although not perfect. Likhachev proposed a more compromise option. He argued that the "Word" from the written genres is closest to the genre of solemn oratorical eloquence, and from folklore to laments and words. The most successful is the point of view of Prokofiev, who said that "The Word" is a lyro-epic song. This decision takes into account at the same time the generic complexity of the work, its connection with the folk-poetic tradition, the originality of the rhythmic organization. At the same time, it makes it possible to compare the Lay with Western European works of the medieval epic, for example, The Song of Roland. Translations of the Lay exist in all languages ​​of the world. There are about 100 translations in Russian: interlinear (for educational purposes, literal translation); poetic (the text is accurately conveyed, not made in the syllabo-tonic system); poetic arrangement (separate deviations from the text are allowed, its division into parts, written in syllabo-tonic). The names of several translators of the Lay have survived, whose translations we still use today. Zhukovsky, translating "The Word", strove to preserve the ancient text (its vocabulary and rhythm) as much as possible. He translated it into rhythmic prose. All other translations of the 19th and 20th centuries. can be attributed to the type of arrangements. The best of them is Maikov's translation. Maikov worked on it for 4 years. His translation contains many interpretations of the "dark places" given by himself. The translation was written by a 5-foot chorea. Because of this, the text acquired a monotony that is not in the original. Zabolotsky's translation is also very common. He decided to divide the text into parts, translated the "dark places". Its translation is notable for ease of reading, but not for conveying the vocabulary of the Lay. The size of the translation is a 5-foot trochee with separate tonic inserts. In the 20th century. there were 2 translations: Andrey Chernov and Shklyaris. They tried to convey the text of the Lay more accurately. Chernov took into account the special rhyming of the original, on the basis of which he made his translation.

20. History of the study of "The Word of Igor's Campaign." Translations of the work, their types and features.

21. Galicia-Volyn Chronicle as a monument to the era of feudal fragmentation. The originality of the "Chronicler Daniel Galitsky" as a princely chronicler.

By its nature, this chronicle is heterogeneous. It consists of 2 parts: the Galician Chronicle (up to 1262) and the Volyn Chronicle (tells about the history of the Volyn principality in the last period). The second part is unoriginal in the literary sense. In this sense, the first part is more interesting. Initially, the chronicle was created as a description of the life of the prince. But the late setting of the dates led to a discrepancy in years up to 5 years (in comparison with other annals). Prince Daniel Galitsky is presented in the chronicle in many ways. He is shown not only as an experienced commander and warrior, but also as a city planner. The portrait descriptions of the prince and the army are unique. The clothes of the prince and the harness of his horse are described in detail.

The content of the chronicle is largely connected with the position of the principality on the outskirts of Russia, in the immediate vicinity of the Polovtsian steppe and Western European countries. The Galician princes had to enter into complex relationships with other Russian princes and with their western neighbors. As in most chronicles of the era of feudal fragmentation, stories about internecine wars, battles with the Polovtsy and western neighbors occupy a significant place. The narration is of a secular character, although the author's readiness not only in secular, but also in church literature is beyond doubt. But the task that stood in the foreground - to give a heroic biography of a contemporary prince - forced him to abandon the didactic-moralizing approach. Because this chronicle is a princely chronicler, great attention is paid to Daniel. There are many descriptions of battles in the annals, therefore there are many military stories. The battles are described in detail (mainly those in which Daniel participated). These descriptions are distinguished by the detail and vividness of the depiction of events, attention to the heroes, especially to Daniel, and a penchant for the picturesque depiction of battles. For example, in the story of the battle at Yaroslav, each of the characters is endowed with individual traits, the images of Daniel and Vasilko are especially vividly drawn as courageous warriors and brave, successful commanders. The author speaks of divine help to them in battle: “I will show God my help over them, as if not from the help of a human being, but from God”. In the story about the devastation of Kiev by Batu, Dimitar, appointed by Daniel Galitsky, was the commander of the battle. The author does not pay much attention to the heroes of the story, focusing on the picturesque depiction of events, perhaps because the main character did not participate in the events. The image of Dimitar is drawn with only a few remarks: it is said about his injury and at the end it is said about the courage of Dmitry.

22. Vladimir-Suzdal literature of the era of feudal fragmentation. "The Tale of Igor's campaign against the Polovtsi" according to the Laurentian Chronicle.

This is a principality in the 12th century. became one of the most powerful Russian principalities. This process of strengthening the principality was preserved in the chronicles: Radziwilovskaya and Laurentian. The Vladimir chronicles of this time are closer to the general Russian type. For them, it is important to divide the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned in this principality. Vladimirskoe and Kievskoy stories about Andrei Bogolyubsky are very similar. Most likely, the Kiev Chronicle served as its source.

The genre composition of the Laurentian Chronicle is reminiscent of The Tale of Bygone Years. But a greater place is occupied by a military tale, primarily about internecine wars, the struggle with the Polovtsy, the Volga Bulgars and the northern peoples. Consequently, the military tale receives its final form in this chronicle. The informative type of stories predominates; chroniclers pay great attention to the assessment of events. Quotes and retrospective historical analogies are very common. For example, a story about Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign against the Polovtsians. The work consists of 3 parts. The first part talks about the reasons and preparation for the campaign. The second part is a description of both battles with the Cumans using several military formulas. The third part is complex in structure, it tells about the consequences of the trip. This part is divided into 3 more sub-parts: Svyatoslav's campaign against the Polovtsi, the story of the siege of Pereyaslavl, the story of Igor's escape from captivity. The story ends with a didactic digression, where the author speaks of the defeat of the prince as God's punishment. This story differs from the story in the Kiev Chronicle. None of the princes is shown as an independent character - it is a single whole, "Olgovyvnutsi" or "Olgovichi". The motives that drive them are not the protection of their native land, but the thirst for glory. The reason for the defeat is bragging, excessive self-confidence. But Svyatoslav Kievsky and Vladimir Pereyaslavsky are presented to the author as genuine defenders of Rus, trying to stop the Polovtsians. But, like all other characters, they are portrayed by the author very sparingly. The image of the narrator in the story is typical of the Laurentian Chronicle: he condemns the Olgovichi. His assessment is manifested through the characteristics: "but not leading God's buildings", "to give a man wisdom, nor is there courage, nor is there a thought against the Lord." Also, there are almost no pictorial and expressive means in the story, except for military formulas. In addition to informative stories, there are weather records. They are laconic, lacking in dating precision. There are also event-type military stories. But there are much fewer of them. For example, stories about the campaigns of Andrei Bogolyubsky, Yuri Dolgoruky. In these stories, the author pays much more attention to the heroes than in the story about Igor's campaign. In addition to military tales, other primary genres are found in the annals: signs, praise (usually accompanying the story of the death of the prince), teaching. The example of the Vladimir-Suzdal literature can rightfully be called "The Prayer of Daniel the Zatochnik". He had 2 editions, which gave 2 works - "Prayer" and "Word".

23. The history of the text, the content, the problem of the “Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoned” genre. Article by BA Rybakov "Daniel the Zatochnik and Russian chronicle writing of the 12th century." No. 22.

"Praying" is one of the most striking monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality of the period of feudal fragmentation. There are 2 editions of it: "Word" and "Prayer". Daniel remains a conditional person for us, since it is not known whether he actually existed. The "Word" refers to Rybakov in 1197. The addressee is Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. Rybakov refers to the "Prayer" in 1229 and believes that it was written by another author, and is addressed to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. The scientist suggested calling the author of this edition "pseudo-Daniel". In the Lay, Daniel humiliates himself before the prince, he speaks of his poverty and defenselessness. Daniel asks to help him, because “we know there is a rich man everywhere, and you keep friends in a foreign country; but wretched in his own we hate to walk. " There are many expressions in his speeches, similar in style to sayings and proverbs. He praises the prince, saying that his voice is sweet and his image is beautiful. The second part of the "Word" is similar in style to a lesson when Daniel tells the prince how to rule, mentioning King Solomon, Ezekiel and others. Then the story comes down to what the prince's wife and retinue should be like. In conclusion, Daniel makes a wish to the prince "to Samson the strength and cunning of David." The text of the "Prayer" is not much different from the 1st edition. But a number of factual information and stylistic features appear in it. The ending contains an appeal to the prince, the author warns of some formidable events (which is not in the "Lay"). In "Praying" as a whole, the style of the 1st edition is preserved, but folklore elements become more evident. Both editions use puns, rhetorical addresses, syntactic parallelism and rhetorical questions very widely. There is a point of view that "The Word" and "Prayer" are written in the genre of a message. But there are many deviations from the main purpose of the message. Therefore, there is such a point of view that this is a collection of aphorisms. In the USA, there are 2 scientists who have developed this theory: Romanchuk and Bernbaum. They argued that Daniel had many deviations from the letter, the work has a 2nd addressee (brothers and a prince), and Daniel himself was a monk (brethren, an appeal to monks). "The Prayer of Daniel the Zatochnik", against the background of other known literary monuments of this period, is an innovative work that combines book wisdom and folk speech elements, biblical reminiscences and buffoonery jokes, methods of solemn eloquence and the folk tradition of puns. As a unique monument, "Praying" is outside the traditional medieval genre system. Therefore, the genre of this work cannot be defined unequivocally, which is the problem of the “Prayer” genre.

"The word about the destruction of the Russian land" came down to us in 2 copies, but both of them are late, and only in a fragment. There are hypotheses that this is an introduction to a trilogy or an introduction to the life of Alexander Nevsky, since in both lists he was followed by the life of Nevsky. But most researchers assume that this is an independent work. The text that has survived can be divided into 3 parts: 1-praise to the Russian land ("Oh, bright and brightly decorated"); 2-memories of the power of Russia (the time of Vl. Monomakh, when "everything was subdued by the God-peasant language"); 3-word about the illness that was at that time. Despite the insignificance of the volume of the surviving text, a number of artistic features are comparable to the "Lay of Igor's Campaign." Perhaps the reason for the similarity is the patriotism of both authors, their concern for Russia, which is also manifested in the works. Both authors combined the past and the present in their works, looked at Russia from a panoramic view, hence the natural pictures that depict the power of their native land. And the timing of Monomakh is not accidental, since under him, Rus won the Polovtsians. Some paths and images are also similar: “One brother, one light light” in “The Word about the Regiment” and the “light light” Russian land in “The Word about Perdition”; in The Lay of the Regiment, Yaroslav Galitsky props up the mountains to protect them from the Ugrians with “iron regiments”, and in the Lay of Death, the Ugrians hide from Monomakh behind the “iron gates”. There are also stylistic coincidences, the methods of determining the time period of the princes' reign are similar: in the "Lay of the Regiment" - "from old Volodymer to the current Igor", and in the "Word of Death" - "from the great Yaroslav to Volodymer." Also, the identity of the rhythmic structure of works was established, based on the rhythm of homogeneous members, syntactic parallelisms, and verbal repetitions. All this made it possible to assume that both works belonged to the same poetic school.

25. The originality of the "Tale of the ruin of Ryazan by Batu" as a military story.

This story belongs to the best examples of a military story. It arose in the 13th century. and came down to us in the lists of the 14-17 centuries. Compositionally, it consists of 4 parts: 1-independent plot about the arrival of Batu to the borders of the principality and the embassy to him of the son of Ryazan prince Fyodor Yuryevich; 2-built as a military story of the event type. A story about the gathering of troops, the battle, the defeat of Ryazan; 3-epic legend about the Ryazan grandee Evpatiy Kolovrat. It is attached to the previous part on a chronological basis. By genre, this is a war story. The plot of the action is Kolovrat's arrival in ruined Ryazan, the climax is a duel with Hostovrul, the denouement is the death of the hero; 4-arrival to Ryazan of the brother of the deceased prince Ingvar Ingvarevich. It is linked to the previous part by chronology. This part of the plot does not represent a single whole. It combines the lament of Ingvar, praise for the family of the Ryazan princes and the message about Ingvar's actions (about the funeral of his brother, about his reign in Ryazan and its reconstruction). Each of the parts of the story has its own main character, possessing the power shown both in battle (2-3 parts), and in worldly actions or spiritually (1-4 parts). This is one of the features of the war story. There are also other features of the war story. For example, the story describes the prince's preparation for battle, his prayer. In the description of the battle itself, there are a lot of military formulas: "Inapadosha to n ', and start strong and courageous", "quick to slash evil and terrible", "Batu's strength is great and heavy, uniting with a thousand, and two with mine", etc. ... Describing the battle of Evpatiy Kolovrat with the Tatars, the author uses the military formula: "Riding around the Tatar regiments bravely and courageously." The first extant chronicle "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu" that has come down to us is based on the sequential combination of a number of independent fragments connected by one central event - the devastation of Batu in the Ryazan principality. Its compositional structure corresponds to the canons of a military story. But in the story, attention to the heroes is clearly increasing, each of whom gains individual traits... The number of pictorial and expressive means is expanding, along with military formulas, paths appear, expressing the author's attitude to events and heroes.

26. Genre originality of the Life of Alexander Nevsky.

In the era of the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the genre of living developed. The heroes of the works were now not only saints, apostles, martyrs, but also people who defended Russia and the faith from the enemies of the Gentiles. An example of such a life is "The Story of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". This life appeared around 1283, its author is unknown, but it is known that it was written in the Nativity monastery. It has come down to us on many lists. The Life was created even before the canonization of Nevsky, and initially it was a secular biography. Perhaps because of this ambiguity, the life combined in itself two genres - life and a military story. Compositionally, the work has a hagiographic macrostructure - it consists of 3 parts. 1-introduction (self-deprecation is used, the author says that he knew Nevsky already in adulthood, that he writes with pure soul). 2-central part (the story of miracles during the life and after the death of Alexander). 3-conclusion (praise to the prince). Contrary to the tradition of living, there is no story about Nevsky's childhood, because the author did not know the hero at this age. The features of the military story can be traced in the central part. When the Swedish king attacked Novgorod, the prince goes to the temple, prays, and then gathers a squad. This is the tradition of a military story. But a new genre vision has been inserted into this part. Pelugiy, standing on guard, sees Boris and Gleb in red robes, who promised to help Nevsky. Further, Pelugius informs the prince about this, he listens attentively and soon goes into battle. The actions of 6 soldiers fighting under the leadership of Alexander are described in detail, which is also typical for a military story of an event type. There is a mention of a miracle, but after it happened: the angel of the Lord allegedly interrupted many of Alexander's opponents where he could not get to them. In the descriptions of the battles, military formulas are used, for example, "quick slash of evil" (battle with the Germans). But at the same time, it is said about the Divine help to the prince, which is more suitable for the life. The last episode tells about the second trip of Alexander to the Horde and about his death on the way back. The story ends with a story about a burial and a posthumous miracle: when Nevsky was lying in a coffin, the Metropolitan wanted to unclench his hand in order to put in a spiritual letter. The prince, as though alive, unclenched his hand and took the letter from the hands of the metropolitan, or the pleasure of the horror, and backsliding his path. " Ts6 structure "The Story of the Life of Alexander Nevsky" is a work of a complex ensemble character: independent military stories (event and informative type) were introduced as 2 episodes inside the central hagiographic part, which include genre formations inherent in hagiographies, visions and miracles ... The combination of life and military story is also in the style and language of the work: military formulas and living language are used by the author together, which is also the genre originality of the work.

The originality of the genre "The story of the murder in the Horde of Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Fyodor."

The story was compiled in Rostov in the 60-70s. 13th century and was subsequently recycled several times. The story is based on the real events of 1246. The author of the story combined the genre of the historical story and the life-martyria (a story about the last stage of the hero's life). The story tells about the arrival of the Tatars to South Russia, about the trip of the Russian people to the Horde and the fulfillment of humiliating tasks in order to get a label for reign. Arriving in Russia, Batu began to convert everyone to his faith, saying that if the Russians worship their "idols", worship him, then he will accept them. But Mikhail of Chernigov decided to go to the Horde to "die for Christ and for the faithful faith." His boyar Fyodor decides to go with him. They receive a blessing and go to the Horde. Arriving at the king, they say that Michael came to bow to him. Baty also decided to subject them to humiliating tasks - to pass through the fire and worship their idols. But Mikhail and Fyodor answer that this is unworthy of them, to which Batu became angry and said that he would kill them if they did not complete the tasks. But they pray to their God and accept the judgment. Habitual traditions in the story: an abundance of internal monologues of characters, the author's transmission of their thoughts and feelings. From a historical story in a work: real historical facts, a logical-chronological three-part structure (preparation of the event - Batu's attack, Michael's request for blessing on a trip to the Horde; narration of the event - a trip to the Horde and rejection of Batu's conditions; consequences of the event - the murder of Fedor and Mikhail ), the personality of the author is not very clearly shown, his assessment of events is through separate remarks, sometimes biblical quotations. The language of the work is traditional for the historical story and life - colloquial Old Russian and Church Slavonic, a moderate number of tropes, but many biblical quotes.

27. Tradition and innovation in historical works about the Battle of Kulikovo (chronicles, "The Legend of the Massacre of Mama", "Zadonshchina"). Article by Prokofiev "Moral and aesthetic searches in the literature of the era of the Kulikovo battle."

A special feature of the monuments of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo becomes an attentive and humane attitude towards a person. The portrayal of the figures of Russian history is losing its former formality and grandeur. In the foreground are not only military merits, but also family life. Prokofiev noted: “In this image, the Battle of Kulikovo appears not only as a state or national event, but also as a universal human phenomenon, expressed through personal-family relations. This is seen as one of the artistic discoveries of the era ”. The assessments of what was happening were marked by special emotionality. Also literary styles of the 14-15th centuries. were largely the result of the creative assimilation of their own pre-Mongol experience. The Battle of Kulikovo is reflected in the literature. Almost all the annals of this period depicted the Battle of Kulikovo in military stories. The tendencies in the development of the genre were most clearly expressed in two types of stories: long and short. The short story was included in the "Rogozhsky Chronicler" and is a work of an informative type, with a traditional 3-part structure. A significant place is given to the 3rd part - the consequences of the battle. But new details also appear: a list of those killed at the end of the story; the methods of stringing homogeneous tropes (“godless and evil Horde prince, Mamai the rotten”) and the combination of tautological turns (“the number of the dead is countless”). An extensive story has been preserved as part of the Novgorod 4th Chronicle. The composition of factual information is the same as in the summary, but since this is an event-type story, the author has increased the number compositional elements characterizing the heroes. The number of prayers of the protagonist increases: before the battle-3, after the battle-thanksgiving prayer. Also, another lyrical fragment appears, which has not been previously used, - the cry of Russian wives. A variety of pictorial and expressive means are also used, especially striking in relation to the enemies: "the dark raw eater Mamai", the apostate Oleg Ryazansky, "murderous", "peasant blood drinker". Descriptions of the Battle of Kulikovo itself in all stories are distinguished by emotionality, which is created by the exclamations of the author and the inclusion in the text of landscape elements that were not previously used. All of these features make the storytelling more motivated and emotionally intense. There are also 2 stories about the Battle of Kulikovo: "The Legend of the Mamayev Massacre" and "Zadonshchina". The composition "Tale" structurally follows the tradition of a military story, but the narrative consists of a number of separate episodes-microplots, connected with each other by plot-motivated or chronological inserts, which is an innovation. Also new is manifested in the author's desire to show the personality of each character individually and to show his role throughout the story. Characters are divided into major (Dmitry Ivanovich, Vladimir Andreevich and Mamai), minor (Sergius of Radonezh, Dmitry Bobrok, Oleg Ryazansky, etc.) and episodic (Metropolitan Cyprian, Thomas Katsibey, etc.). Also, a compositional feature is a lot of lyrical fragments (prayers, crying) and natural descriptions. A vision also appears in the text. A new descriptive element appears - the image of the Russian army, as the princes saw it from the hill. Along with the preservation of military formulas, a lot of epithets, comparisons are used, the role of metaphors that emphasize the experiences of the heroes is enhanced. The author of Zadonshchina took the Lay of Igor's Regiment as a model. In the introduction, Boyan is also mentioned, and at the end the time of the event is set ("And from the Kalat army to the Mamayev massacre, 160 years"). Further text as a whole is traditional, 3-part structure. But within each part, the narration is built on the basis of separate episodes, pictures, alternating with the author's digressions. There are documentary elements in the story, the use of digital data, brownie enumerations. There are minor deviations from the chronology, which is unconventional for a military story. Lyric fragments are few in number, according to the canons of a military story. There are no detailed descriptions of the characters (except for Dmitry Ivanovich), and the enemies are described very schematically. Folklore influence can be seen in the use of negative comparisons (“Those were not gray-haired people, but when they came to the tartar, they wanted to go through the whole Russian land to fight”). "Zadonshchina" is a monument created at the intersection of traditions: folklore, military story and "Lay". But still the tradition of the military story should be recognized as the leading one.

28. "Zadonshchina" and "The Word about Igor's Regiment". Artistic connections and the problem of the genre of works.

The author of "Zadonshchina" took "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" as an example of the narrative. But, despite this, "Zadonshchina" is an independent work of art. The introduction is focused mainly on the "Lay"; here Boyan is mentioned, who was previously known only from the text of the "Lay". But the part ends with the establishment of the time of the event: "And from the Kalat army to the Momaev massacre, 160 years." The subsequent text as a whole repeats the 3-part structure of the military story, but within each part the narration is built on the basis of separate episodes-pictures, alternating with the author's digressions, which are focused on the "Word". But in "Zadonshchina" there are documentary elements that are absent in the "Lay". There are also similarities in the portrayal of the main characters. Prince Dmitry in Zadonshchina is an ideal hero. This is the continuation of the traditions of the Lay, the image of Svyatoslav the ideal hero. In Zadonshchina there are many borrowings from the Lay. For example, in "Slovo" there are many historical digressions, they are also in "Zadonshchina" (but much less). For example, the prediction of the outcome of the battle: "Shibla glory to the Iron Gates." Or the words of Peresvet and Oslyably, which could only be said at the beginning of the battle (Peresvet died), are given after it. Another common place is crying. In "Slovo" - the lament of Yaroslavna, and in "Zadonshchina" - the lament of Russian wives. But their meanings are different. Yaroslavna's cry is symbolic, and the cry of Russian wives breaks the story of the battle to add an additional emotional flavor. There are also common passages in the descriptions and speech of the characters. In "Slovo" Igor says that "Lucezh would have been dead, not yet dead." And in "Zadonshchina" Peresvet practically repeats these words word for word: "We should be sweaty rather than full of being from the rotten Tatars \". "Zadonshchina" is a synthesis of a war story, folklore and "Lay". But the tradition of a military story prevails in it, which makes it necessary to define its genre as a military story. "Word" also combines several genres, which led to the problem of defining its genre. It was close to both folklore and written genres (military story, song, solemn eloquence). But its genre is defined as a lyric-epic song.

29. Lives written by Epiphanius the Wise. The causes and basic techniques of the style of "weaving words".

30. Literary features and significance in the development of the genre of the military story "The Tale of Nestor Iskander about the capture of Constantinople by the Turks." The work of A.S. Orlov "On the peculiarities of the form of Russian military stories."

This work belongs to the military stories of the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. It tells about the fall of the Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453 under the onslaught of the Turks and the transformation of the capital of the Orthodox world of Constantinople into a Muslim city. The tale was widespread in Russia and was included in a number of chronicles of the 16th century, influencing the further development of military tales. The work consists of 2 parts. 1-prologue of events. A story about the founding of Constantinople, a sign that predicted the fate of this city (the battle of a snake and an eagle with the victory of the first symbol of Islam; but then people kill the snake), about the beauty and greatness of Constantinople. 2-main plot-story about the siege and capture of the city by the Turks. This part corresponds to the canons of the military story. The description of gathering troops is very abstract. The central narrative lists military events. The plot is linear, traditional for a military story. But it is complicated by the descriptions of many events. The author describes every day the Turks attacked the city, battles, advice from the emperor with those close to him about further actions. And this is how every day of the siege is described. Here comes the motive of fate, predestination from the very beginning (sign). The descriptions are very emotionally tense, which is intensified by 2 signs — the departure of the patron angel of the city — from the church of Sofia (the central cathedral), and then — a bloody rain. In the last part of the story is a story about the death of the city and the fate of the townspeople. A prophecy is also introduced here: as people killed the snake that strangled the eagle, so in the future Christians will have to defeat Muslims and revive Christianity in the city. Thus, a military event becomes a part of the history of a Christian city, presented in its most important events. This is an expanded ^ th (Shock is akin to "The Legend of the Mamay Massacre."

The text contains detailed descriptions of 4 heroes: Constantine, Patriarch Anastasius, Zustunei and Sultan Magomed. The image of the protagonist is traditional for the military narrative ^, RN is courageous (decides to die with the city), protects his hometown until his last breath. But a new approach can also be seen in his image: the author seeks to convey the depth of his feelings through prayers, crying, the image of the manifestations of his state of mind. Patriarch Anastassy constantly supports the Caesar. His image is similar to the image of Cyprian from "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" - this is the support of the struggle against enemies by the Orthodox Church. Zustuny is a minor character, but his special role is that he alone responded to the request of Constantine for help from foreign states. This is the embodiment of the ideal image of a warrior, "brave and wise, and skilled in military affairs." Magomed is presented in an unusual way. In the beginning, everything is traditional - he is "insecure and deceitful." But then his characteristics change - he is shown as a powerful ruler, who gathered huge forces for the campaign, an experienced and patient commander. After the capture of the city, he shows magnanimity, forgives all civilians, and when he sees the head of Constantine, he pays tribute to him: "Obviously, God bore the world more than a king, almost in vain death." In the description of battle scenes, the author does not strive for a detailed depiction of events, there are no landscape elements. The descriptions are based on military formulas: "swift to slaughter evil and terrifying," "one thousand, and two I will." The story of Nestor-Iskander, using traditions, complicates the plot due to the introduction of twists and turns, a tendency to somewhat expand the circle of characters and a greater versatility of their depiction, the image of the enemy undergoes significant changes. The author creates a narrative using stylistic techniques of an emotionally expressive plan, previously used only in Lives. Thus, the military narrative in Russia begins to become more complicated, not without the influence of this story. There is a convergence of the appearance of the main goodie with the image of the ideal hero of the princely life. It is the non-chronicle stories of this era that are the prerequisites for the creation of a new type of large-scale historical story.

31. The peculiarity of the Novgorod historical and legendary stories of the 15th century. (The story of the mayor Schil, the Story of the journey of John of Novgorod on a demon to Jerusalem).

The genre of a fiction novel emerges in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. She had her source in the Novgorod historical and fictional stories, which were based on local legends. In the first place in them was the amusingness of the plot, the absence of a pronounced didacticism. Among such stories are "The Tale of the mayor Shchile" and "The Tale of Ivan's journey on a demon." "The Story of the Journey" is based on two miracles: traveling on a demon and saving Ivan from the slander that the demon brought against him. The oral legend about this arose very early. The plot of this legend - the service of a demon sworn by the sign of the cross - goes back to the fabulous folklore of Ancient Russia. This story has come down to us as part of the "Life of John" related to the patericon, which consisted of 3 parts, the second of which was a story about the journey. The story begins with the words that it was “God who created” that the demon was in a vessel of water in John's cell. Further there is a story about the sign of the cross overshadowing the demon and about John's journey to Jerusalem. After returning back, the demon tells John to keep silent about this incident, otherwise “I’m the Imam to bring temptation to you”. But he did not fulfill the request and the demon punished him: the demon was transformed into a harlot and left the saint's cell when others saw it. Soon John was expelled for this. But then, when everything was revealed, people wanted to return the saint, to ask his forgiveness. From their prayers, John's raft sailed to the shore, "as if we were carrying it through the air." Then it tells about the consequences: the prince of Novgorod put up a cross at the place where the saint had sailed. The story ends with a biblical quotation, the words of Christ about the expelled "for the sake of truth." In the "Tale of the mayor Shchila" the heretical views of the strigolniks are traced. This story has a wonderful character. The planter Shchil was wealthy and built a church on interest on loans to other people. When he went to the archbishop to ask him to consecrate this church, he had to tell where the money for the construction came from. The archbishop was angry and said that Shchil “became like Esau; Let us give a blessing from me for such a divine deed, ”and ordered Shchil to go home, put a coffin in the wall and lie down in it, and everything was sung over it, as it should be. Shchil did so, and then suddenly fell into the ground. His son went to the saint for help. The saint ordered him to paint on the wall a picture depicting Shila in hell. The son did so, after which he performed panikhida 3 times for 40 days and gave alms (according to the teaching of the saint). First, in the picture, Shiel's head came out of hell, then the body, and then the whole thing came out. After that, the coffin, in which Shchil fell, came to the surface. And the archbishop, seeing this miracle, consecrated the church. In this story, a miracle comes to the fore: the miracle of the sudden disappearance of Shield and the miracle of his emergence from hell with Divine help. This story arose on the basis of an oral legendary tradition.

32. "Walking over the 3 seas" - the first merchant travel.

The genre of "walking", which arose at the beginning of the 12th century, until the end of the 15th century. He continued to exist as a pilgrimage. Russian travelers described their visits to the holy places of Christianity. Each author brought something of his own to this genre. Significant changes began to occur in the era of the Battle of Kulikovo, when interests in holy places begin to be supplanted by interest in events. modern life... A new genre variety appeared - merchant "walks". It gained considerable popularity in the 16th and 17th centuries. the object of the image was the impressions of travelers about the countries where they visited for trade purposes. The circle of the described phenomena has significantly expanded - the way of life, customs in the described countries. Gone are the descriptions of shrines and legends. By the composition of the walk, they resembled diary entries. The personality of the narrator was revealed more widely through his assessments and emotions. The language was distinguished by its simplicity, an abundance of colloquial vocabulary, proverbs and sayings, foreign language vocabulary. The first merchant voyage that has come down to us was “Voyage across the 3 seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. In the beginning, there is no self-abasement, which is traditional for pilgrimage walking, except for the "sinful walk." The introduction is a listing of the seas through which he sailed, completely absent

Tatars. 2-way from Derbent to India. The geographical names of the places where he visited during this time are listed here. There are practically no descriptions. 3-description of the journey through India. There are many descriptions here, there are stories about the cities he visited and the time it takes to walk from one to the other. Athanasius talks about life in India, about the climate, customs and way of life, describing everything national (clothes, animals, food) in Russian words, so that he can be better understood. 4-story about a journey home. It is characterized by the listing of major geographic features and travel times with little descriptions. In conclusion, the author mentions 3 traversed seas and prayer in a mixture of oriental languages. The predominant principle of storytelling is chronological. The narrator's image corresponds to the tradition of merchant walking. Having expanded his circle of interests, he meets with a large number of new people. The author is terzim to a stranger in ^, although it is not easy for him. He counts the time, guided by Orthodox holidays (mainly Easter). He suffers from the fact that he cannot fulfill Orthodox customs: “I don’t know the Nativity of Christ, I don’t know any other holidays, I don’t know either Wednesday or Friday, but I don’t have a book,” and so on. The image of his homeland is constantly present in his thoughts, he praises it (albeit in a mixture of oriental languages), his exclamations are frequent: “May the Russian land be protected by God! God save her! There is no country like it in this world, although the boyars of the Russian land are unjust. " The author constantly asks God for forgiveness for non-observance of fasts. In fact, the author becomes the main character of the work, who appears as an original personality. The language of walking is colloquial Old Russian, almost devoid of Church Slavonic elements. Foreign words are widely used, even in prayers. In general, the style of walking is the style of a living story of a person who knows how to vividly and clearly describe his impressions. The object of the narration is also changing - now it is the life of people, their customs and life.

33. The emergence of the genre of fiction. Composition principles and folklore plots in The Tale of Dracula.

The genre of a fiction story emerged during the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. She had her source in the Novgorod historical and fictional stories, which were based on local legends. The first place was occupied by plot amusement, the absence of pronounced didacticism. Fictional stories with fictional plots. Most of the heroes had historical prototypes, but they either lived in the past or were very far away. The plots went back to folklore. In these stories, the author did not express his attitude to events. The plots were built either on the principle of a chain, or on the principle of open compositions. These stories were originally designed to be fun to read. The first of these stories is "The Tale of the Mutyan governor Dracula." At the heart of its plot are oral legends about the Romanian prince Vlada that existed in Europe, who for his cruelty had the nickname "Tepes" and "Dracula". The composition of the work is interesting. This is a chain of separate stories about Dracula's actions. Moreover, the author refrains from evaluating his actions, giving the right to this to the reader. Only once does the author speak of his cunning and the fact that Dracula is the devil's namesake. The story begins with the words that such a ruler, Dracula, once lived in the land of Mutiana, and that he was cruel. Then a chain of stories begins, one after the other. And at the end, it talks about the capture of Dracula by the Hungarian king and his mockery of birds and mice in the dungeon. And after his release, Dracula did not change his temper, killing the bailiff, who let the robber into his yard. The story ends with a story about the death of Dracula and his son Vlada. The story contains a folklore motif of riddles. For example, in the story of how 2 Catholic monks came to Dracula, and he asked each of them what they thought about his deeds. One said that he had done wrong, because the sovereign should be merciful. The second replied that those executed were doing evil and were punished according to their deserts, tk. the sovereign punishes and pardons only for the cause. Dracula put the first on a stake, and rewarded the second. There is also a story, when the ambassador came to Dracula, and the sovereign showed him a gilded stake and asked how he thought, what this stake was prepared for. The ambassador replied that he was for a noble person. Dracula replied that he said correctly, and this count is for him. To which the ambassador said that if he was guilty before Dracula, then let the sovereign do as he wants. For this, Dracula rewarded the ambassador and released him. And in the same story it is directly said that he had such a custom of making riddles to ambassadors. And if they answered incorrectly, then they were executed, and a letter was sent to their king so that they would not send bad ambassadors to Dracula in the future. The plot of this story is traditional for its genre. The main character has a real prototype, the plot is built on the basis of legends and folklore, and the composition looks like a chain of plots. Also, there is no direct author's assessment in the work, which is also traditional for fiction stories.

34. The problem of the genre "The Story of Peter and Fevronia of Murom".

It was created in the middle of the 16th century (but for a long time it was attributed to the 15th century) by the priest and publicist Yermolai-Erasmus. In theory, this work was created as a life. But it was not recognized as a life due to numerous deviations from the canon in the central part, and in the process of revision it became a story. The basis of her plot was formed on the basis of two oral-poetic, fairy-tale motifs - about a hero-snake fighter and a wise maiden, which are widespread in folklore. The source of the plot was a local legend about a wise peasant girl who became a princess. Popular tradition had a strong influence on Ermolai-Erasmus, and he created a work that was not related to the canons of the hagiographic genre: this is a fascinating narrative narrative, not much like the lives of the saints with their exploits and martyrdom for the glory of the church. ‘The work consists of 4 parts, story-related. 1-story about the snake fighter. 2-heroes go for a doctor for the victim of the snake. They meet a girl speaking in riddles. This is followed by the motive of riddles and

tests. 3-life of Peter and Fevronia in marriage, there are elements of folklore narration. 4-story about the death of Peter and Fevronia and the posthumous miracle. The problem with genre is that many elements of different genres are brought together in a work. The work does not say anything about the childhood of the heroes (unconventional for living), folklore motives are traced in all parts. For example, a fabulous plot about a snake hero, a riddle motif, when Fevronia says that “it’s not good to be at home without an eye and a temple without an ochsho” (dog-ears at home, child-eyes at home) and when asked where her family answers : “Father and matipoidosha borrow posters. My brother is going to see through my legs in Navi ", which means" mother and father went to the funeral, and my brother went to bend. " There is also a folk motif in the 3rd movement, when Fevronya after a meal collects crumbs in her hand, and then they turn into incense and incense. This is an echo of the fairy tale about the frog princess, when the leftovers turned into swans and a lake. And the departure of Peter with Fevronia from Murom, and then the request of the nobles for their return also has an echo in folk tale... But in the work there is also a spiritual side inherent in the lives. Peter and Fevronia do not talk about love, because Peter does not even want to marry her at first. Their marriage is not carnal, but spiritual and is built on keeping the commandments. Fevronia works miracles because of her spirituality. Another element of the life is the posthumous miracle, when Peter and Fevronia, contrary to their dying instruction, are buried in different places, and overnight they still end up together in a coffin for two, which remained empty. And their death in one hour is also something unusual, which can only be characteristic of saints. The combination of folklore, life and elements of the story in one work makes the work multifaceted, but this is the author's special skill and innovation in literature.

35. "Kazan history" as a new type of historical narration. Using the experience of different genres in the work.

The historical story "Kazan History" was written in the mid-60s 1 * c. It belongs to the best examples of Old Russian fictional prose and occupies a special place in the development of new forms of historical narration. It poeticizes the power of a single centralized state, the activities of Ivan the Terrible and his supporters, the annexation of the Kazan kingdom to the Muscovite state. The author is trying to create a new type of storytelling with a pronounced ideological concept, theme and pronounced position of the author. "History" consists of several short stories, linked by chronology. The introduction speaks about the purpose of the work - to tell about the history of the Kazan kingdom and about its relationship with Russia. The author speaks about the novelty of the novel: "The red ubonovyya tales deserve this joyfully for us to listen to." The author calls Ivan 4 the Chosen One, clearly expressing the author's position. The central part is divided into 2 sub-parts: before the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible and after that. In sub-part 1, the narration is chronologically directed - the beginning of the Kazan kingdom, where folklore motifs about a two-headed snake and a hero-snake-fighter who defeated him with the help of magic are traced; the main characters are the Moscow and Kazan tsars. The plot is built on the principle of antithesis - the victories of the Russians are replaced by defeats, the actions are constantly transferred from Moscow to Kazan and back. This sub-part uses a local microplot mix. There are many war stories of both types, brought into the general course of events. Basis 2 sub-parts - stories about the campaigns of Ivan the Terrible. They are presented in the form of military stories with the idealized protagonist Ivan 4. but the narrative is multi-figured, Kazan rulers, warriors, and boyars act in it. In this part there are fewer dates of events, but many symbolic elements: signs, visions, miracles. For example, the dream of the Kazan king, where the light month swallows up the dark one, and the animals that come to Kazan eat the Kazan animals, which predicts future events. Also, the vision of Ivan 4 about the construction of Sviyazhsk and the departure of the patron devil of the city from the mosque. They play different roles in the dozen. A significant place is taken by the genres traditional for the military tradition: lamentation (ptstsni of the Kazan queen Sumbeki), praise, and prayers. Sumbeki's weeping addressed to Kazan plays a symbolic role, predicting his death. The "History" ends with chapters in which the praise of Kazan, the Moscow principality and Ivan 4 is pronounced. The author assesses the significance of the victory, speaking of the Beauty of Moscow, the OGR of the kingdom. In the image of the main character, the author's innovation can be traced - Ivan the Terrible is depicted in many ways, his actions and thoughts are shown in different situations. His desire to avoid bloodshed was noted, which had not happened before, as shown in the seven embassies of the tsar in Kazan. All this speaks of the author's approaches to creating character, although the main way of creating the image of the king - idealization - remains. The portrayal of episodic characters is also changing: there was no distinction between positive and negative according to national and religious grounds. A traitor can be both your own and a stranger, and both will be punished. The images of the troops are also unusually drawn: the author often emphasizes the determination of the enemies, arousing respect for them. And the capture of the city by the Russian army is more like a plunder. The author's attitude is also innovative - he expresses his opinion much more actively, which is shown in the introduction and conclusion, digressions, which are most often of a final nature. Innovation is also manifested in style: the widespread use of tropes, metaphors, military formulas lose their meaning (spreads them in other words, which destroys them). "History" made extensive use of the traditions of living, military story, walking, teaching, symbolic and lyrical genre education. A military tale: a combination of local microplots ("The Legend of the Mamayev Massacre"); indication of the landscape at the time of day; the connection in the main character of the traits of a commander with Christian features; the vision of the departure of the patron devil of their city, the penetration of rhetorical techniques into the paintings of the battle-traditions of the "Tale of the capture of Constantinople". Life: mention of the virtues of Ivan 4, characteristic of him from childhood; rhetorical techniques. Walking: static descriptions of nature expressing the author's admiration. Teachings: artistic means used in crying. Due to such an abundance of genres, it is impossible to resolve the issue of the genre of the work.

36. The main problems in journalism of the 16th century. The originality of the journalistic creativity of Maxim the Greek.

The ideological orientation of the literature of the Moscow kingdom predetermined the rapid development of journalism. In journalism, works on topical topics were widely distributed. public life... Areas of journalistic problems: problems associated with the formation of an autocratic state (the image of the autocrat, the relationship between different classes, the problem of the relationship between the royal and ecclesiastical authorities), church problems (the fight against heresy, the problem of intra-church land tenure, the problem of moral character).

One of the most famous publicists was Maxim the Greek. He owns a huge literary heritage. In one of his works - "The Word of Maximus the Greek" - the main literary device-allegory. By genre, this is also an allegory. In the center of the story is the image of the Wife, this is the power, Basil (from the Greek, "kingdom"). The main narrative is based on the conversation between the Greek and the Wife. The Greek is depicted as a traveler who meets his wife and asks about her sorrows, but she does not want to tell anything, saying that he will not help her anyway. But all the same, the narrator persuades her, and she says that her name is Basil, she is one of the daughters of the king, from whom "every good gift descends and every gift is perfect for the sons of men." She talks about how she saw the exploitation of people, and about the fact that rulers must follow God's laws, otherwise war and adversity await everyone. The uniqueness of the Greek journalism lies precisely in the fact that the main idea of ​​his work is uttered not by himself, but by an allegory, the Wife. Before him, this was not in the works. The Greek claims that a monk must live according to Christian precepts. A bright parable beginning can be traced in the work. In another word by Maxim the Greek, “about the newcomers of philosophers,” he talks about how to check the preparedness of translators who came from abroad into Russian. Moreover, he gives all these advice to people who will receive visitors "ashe for my death." He proposes to give the visitors their translations so that they try to "preface my translation." And if he can, it means a good translator, and if not, then we also need to learn his ability to determine the poetic dimensions. In this word, the Greek makes it clear that he considers his works to be a model, in what he shows innovation, because before him, traditionally there was self-deprecation of authors, and the Greek not only does not follow this canon, but also exalts himself. In "Praise for sowing blissful and holy, let the books of grammar not be called, as if on behalf of her to be spoken" Maxim the Greek writes about the meaning of grammar for people, praising it. And here again an allegory can be traced, which is revealed at the very end - now the Greek himself is presented in the role of grammar. He calls on everyone to listen to him and follow his advice, giving examples from antiquity, mentions Christian writers of the past. Maxim the Greek's innovation in the field of journalism is very great: he introduced allegory into journalism, renounced traditional self-abasement. And his thoughts and advice are generally very relevant and useful.

Criticism of the addressee's style in Kurbsky's second message. The polemical correspondence between Kurbsky and Grozny reflects the clash of two social positions - the high-born boyars and the serving nobility, which asserts the need for a strong autocratic power. The messages are also different in their style - abstractly judicious and quirky in Kurbsky and concretely rude and caustic in Grozny. In the first message, Kurbsky accuses the tsar of cruelty and oppression of himself, says that the tsar will have to answer at the Last Judgment for everything. He asks: "About what, to the king, did you beat those strong in Israel and the governor, given to you by God, did you give up by various deaths?" etc. The message is written in an angry, caustic style. In response to this, Ivan the Terrible writes an extensive message in which he calls the addressee a false teacher who has illegally appropriated the right to instruct the monarch and his subjects. Grozny reproduces some of Kurbsky's remarks and invariably refutes them. The message is created as a kind of confession of faith and principles of the Russian autocracy. Terrible parodies the style of the addressee, his structure of thought and literary style. The king ridicules all his arguments, distorting them and ironically ridiculing them. For example, Kurbsky in his message speaks of the blood shed for the tsar on the battlefield, and Grozny ironically plays on these words, saying that the tsar is not guilty of shed blood, and that a Christian should not regret the feat in the name of the Motherland. Grozny repeats key phrases, building a number of associations in the form of negative parallelism. Grozny refutes all accusations against him, guided by the Bible, like Kurbsky. In his second letter to the tsar, Kurbsky criticizes the "broadcast and noisy" letter of Grozny, declaring brevity to be the main criterion of the author's literary training. Kurbsky considers unacceptable the immoderate quoting of "paremeins" -1shgzl from the Old Testament, violation of correspondence etiquette and an abundance of quotes from his own letter, which he says to the tsar. The style of this message is no longer so caustic and angry. Kurbsky comes to terms with some of the statements, saying that he has already come to terms with the oppression, "may God be your judge about this." Kurbsky says: "I don't understand anymore, we don't want anything." The style is close to didactic, Kurbsky reflects on the actions of Grozny, but does not condemn them so vividly, hoping for God's help: "and for this, we will wait a little, I still believe, like the coming of Jesus Christ is near." In the second letter of Grozny, stylized parodies and irony are also used. He, imitating Kurbsky, begins to complain: “Colic misfortunes have taken you from you, insults colic, annoyance and reproach colic! And for what? " He parodies the humble style of Kurbsky, the style of his message is approaching self-deprecation. This correspondence was an interesting document of the era and constituted an important stage in the history of Russian journalism in the 16-17 centuries.

38. Generalizing literary works midXviv. Ideological concept, stylistic originality, significance of monuments

General - style traditions and significance of monuments. In 1547-1549. there is a general church canonization of many Russian saints, who were previously considered locally revered. This action required documentary and spiritual justification. To this end, Metropolitan Macarius implements his plan - to collect all religious books approved in Russia - and creates the "Great Cheti-Menaion". For this, about 60 lives of the new canonized saints were compiled, written in a rhetorical style. But there was no longer any historical information about these saints, so the chroniclers invented facts and wrote in the likeness of other lives. The Cheti-Minei included: Lives; books of Scripture and interpretation on them; patericons; works of South Slavic and Russian writers, recognized as a model; collection "The Bee", "The Tale of the Destruction of Jerusalem", "The Walking of Abbot Daniel". The most important event in the spiritual life of the middle of the 16th century. the creation of the "Stoglava Cathedral" also appeared. He was called to regulate all aspects of spiritual and practical life. His decrees concerned church land tenure, social norms, the private life of the clergy, etc. His goal was to create the foundations of a unified state and bring order to Russian life. This cathedral was distinguished by its harsh and doctrinal didacticism. It wrote about what should be the icon painting (focused on Rublev), church books (necessarily revised). Regulatory tasks family life served as "Domostroy". The author is not exactly established, but it is believed that the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral, Sylvester, had a hand in this book. The source of Domostroi was biblical texts, Zlatoust, documentary records and, possibly, observations. The book regulated daily life an Orthodox person. Often, its significance is limited to the practical side, but the overriding task of the house-building was to embody in real life the idea of ​​the soulfulness of the royal power. The task is to educate an obedient subject and an exemplary Christian, to create a unified model of life in Russia. The Domostroy genre is a spiritual teaching. His style is distinguished by didactddem and morality. Its chapters can be divided into 3 groups: determination of a person's attitude to spiritual and secular power; worldly structure (arrangement of family life); house structure (tips for housekeeping). Sylvester added chapter 64 where he gave advice based on his experience. The main defining features of this literature were universality, encyclopedism, didactic and polemical orientation. The scribes of this time generalized the experience of their predecessors, combining historical plots, parables, and teachings into large monumental ensembles. Also, their works provided a new aesthetic design for the main ideological concepts of that time.

39. Development of the genre of walking in the 16-17 centuries. Trifon Korobeinikov's Walking to Constantinople.

In the 16th century. along with merchant journeys, ambassadorial travel notes, called "article lists" or "listings", began to appear. They contained the issues on which the negotiations were conducted, and the etiquette of the embassy reception was recorded. The structure of the ambassadorial narratives was more fully characterized by Prokofiev. He said that they begin with the indication of the time and place where the embassy is sent and for whose purpose the route is described. In the central part, he pointed to descriptions of the reception ceremony and descriptions of negotiations. He also mentioned inserting descriptions of the landscape and everyday life into the story. These works acquired elements business style combined with traditional colloquial vocabulary. The text also included speeches of the characters, a detailed description of the course of events, which made the story less DYNAMIC, BUT more ACCURATE. In "The Walk of Trifon Korobeinikov," the convergence of pilgrimage with two new types is traced. The journey begins with a message about the time of departure of Tryphon and a description of its route, indicating the distance between points. The main text is divided into travel sketches, which tell about a certain settlement or segment of the route. The descriptions are businesslike and short, attention is drawn to the size of the city, the material of the buildings ("the town of Orsha stone", "the town of Borisov Drevyan is small"), the availability of retail space and the methods of protecting the cities: and at the prison there are collars and arrows with a gun, but a foreigner will not be allowed into the prison without saying)). This is reminiscent of merchant walks. Also there are descriptions of nature, detailed description of the topography, traditional for pilgrimage walks. An element of the ambassadorial article list ("On the advance of Russian ambassadors to the sovereign of Voloshe Aaron") is also introduced into circulation: "March 13 at 3 o'clock in the morning", it is said how the ambassadors were received: slan carpets; and in the locker, the Volosh sovereign is sitting in place. " The story "About the Turskaya mosque and about the dervyshekh that they have in our place Cherntsy" resembles a household sketch. Attention is paid to the clothes, the appearance of people: "mustaches, brads, and eyebrows are shaved", the life of the "chambers" for wanderers is described in detail. 2 essays in "Walking" are devoted to the description of the shrines of Constantinople. The "Tale of the Tsar City is not about everyone" describes the location of the city in detail, mentions the main shrines: Noah's ax, the pillar of Constantine Flavius, the temple of Sophia, etc. The author recalls the legend of the departure of the patron angel of the city, retelling it in his own way. Mention is made of the plight of the Orthodox Church and the Patriarch. The second essay "On the Destruction of the Temple of St. George" provides a legend about the miracle of St. George, who defended his temple from the Turkish king, and not only the preservation of the temple, but also the mercy of the Sultan to its servants is called a miracle. The story is dynamic and concise, dialogue is widely used. At the end, the Blachernae Church, the monasteries of Pantokrator, the Apocalypse are mentioned. "Walking" cannot be attributed to a particular type. It refers to secular travel, because most of the information is not related to religious purposes. There is no pronounced author's assessment. The language is traditional for "walking" - colloquial vocabulary and phraseological turns, a few foreign words, always with translation. There is a tendency towards the creation of a secular type of walking, as well as the combination of various genre features in order to create a documentary and interesting story.

40. The main directions of development in the literature about the Troubles. Artistic uniqueness “The story of the death and burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky ".

Lit-ru of this time is divided into 2 stages: 1 - until 1613 Publicistic works, small in volume, one-sidedly representing the heroes. Lyric and symbolic genres, business documents were combined. This stage includes "The New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom", "The Tale of the Death and Burial of Skopin-Shuisky. 2-20s 17th century The works tell about the entire Time of Troubles, strive for an objective assessment of events, pay special attention to historical figures. This literature combines genres in different ways. These include "Chronicle Book", "Vremennik" by Ivan Timofeev, "The Legend of Vraham Palitsev". In the lit-re of the 17th century. a new relationship is established between the historical and the fictional. Poveta, historical by name, contain fiction; facts of Russian history are combined with motives of fairy tales and legends. Fictional heroes act in the typical Russian society of the 17th century. situations, everyday life and everyday life form a single alloy, which speaks of the convergence of literature with life. A striking example of such an evolution is the "Tale of the death and burial of Prince Skopin-Shuisky", full of rumors and legends. The unexpected death of a young military leader with a heroic physique struck the consciousness of his contemporaries and gave rise to the legend of his poisoning. The author of the story also adheres to it, saturating the narrative with motives coming from folk songs and laments. The plot is as follows: at a feast at Prince Vorotynsky, Maria Shuyskaya brings him a deadly drink, and that was "a fierce mortal drink." The idea of ​​poisoning is compared with the idea that "the thought changes to catch like a bird in the forest, like a lynx to fry." And Michael dies on the night of April 23-24, in which the author sees symbolism, since happens "from the day of the great warrior and passion-bearer George to the day of the governor Sava Stratzhat." This comparison was supposed to "sanctify" the image of the Russian military leader, to make him the moral ideal of the Time of Troubles. Skopin-Shuisky appears as an epic hero, the author skillfully uses comparisons and poetic means of the folk epic. The prince is called "the heavenly sun", for which the warriors cannot "mature". His power is hyperbolized - in the whole state they cannot find a coffin for him: “oak logs”. Michael is compared to King David and Samson. Many hyperboles are used in describing the grief of the people-people, who follow the coffin as many as there are “stars of heaven”, the lament for it is described: “from the people, screaming and screaming the voice of the people singing the tombstone, and not hearing the voice of the singers,” but about those who have heard all this, it is said: "even if the heart is of stone and stone, but even that one is poured with pity." A particular emotional coloring gives the narration the lament of the mother, close to the popular lamentation, the lament of the Swedish commander, traditional for high oratory, and the lament of the Russian people. It is repeated several times that the singing was not heard due to crying. At the end, a vision is given that predicts the death of Skopin-Shuisky, which violates the chronology, because it was "15 days from the feast of the resurrection of Christ." It is told by a resident of the city, having learned about the death of Michael, saying that it "came true in this present time."

41. Literary activity of Archpriest Avvakum. Stylistics and genre originality of the Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by himself.

Avvakum is the author of more than 80 works, some of which have not reached us. His works: "Book of Conversations", "Book of Interpretations", petitions to Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, letters, messages, etc. His work is permeated with a passionate denunciation of the official church and secular autocratic power from the standpoint of a supporter of the Old Believers. He became an innovator in the literary business in the style and principles of literary depiction, although he was an opponent of innovation in art. His most famous work "Life" is an autobiography. In the introduction to him, Habakkuk writes about the influence of the confessor Epiphanius on him, and the traditional method of self-abasement follows. His style of living is similar to the confessional, because he blurs the line between himself and the reader, creating an atmosphere of empathy. Likhachev defined Avvakum's style as the style of pathetic simplification - "grounding" of the high (the story of the miraculous saturation of the prisoner when Avvakum does not know whether it was an angel or a man) and the poeticization of the low (the story of the death of a chicken "). It goes beyond the traditional framework of the lives: the heroes of the work are not unambiguously sinners or righteous. Habakkuk himself almost succumbs to temptation when a harlot comes to him, which was not previously in the hagiographic tradition. And the image of the harlot herself is multifaceted - she is a sinner, but she came to confess - and this somewhat "cleanses" her. Habakkuk creates a new image, a “holy sinner,” which leads to a combination of two narrative plans: a solemn author's sermon and a confession of repentance. Habakkuk combined the church language, and abuse, and colloquial... Another facet of the innovation of living is the combination of the comic and the tragic. When the archpriest describes his return from exile, speaks of crossing the river, when the archpriest is left with strength and she falls, another person stumbles over her and also falls on her. He apologizes, to which she replies: "Why did you run over me, Batko?" Describing the horrors of his imprisonment, he jokes, saying: “I’m lying in a dog in a straw,” and so on. Also, the life is full of satirical portraits of Avvakum's enemies. For example, in a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich, he writes: "Poor, poor, insane tsarishko!" Also, Avvakum's innovation manifested itself in writing not a journalistic work with elements of an autobiography, but a whole life story. The work turns into the history of the first years of the Old Believer movement, the history of Russia in the second half of the 17th century. In addition to Habakkuk, his companions and enemies are present in his life, the space-time boundaries of the narrative are widely represented. All these innovative features make life an outstanding work of its kind.

42. The historical basis, the originality of the style of the "Tale of the Azov siege seat of the Don Cossacks."

In the 17th century. a cycle of stories about Azov arises, where the patriotic feat of the Cossacks is glorified. The military stories written at that time reflected examples of the mass heroism of the Cossacks during the capture of the fortress. "The Tale of the Azov sitting" was written in the 40s. 17th century on the basis of actual historical events, when in the spring of 1637 the Don Cossacks, taking advantage of the employment of the Turkish Sultan in the war with Persia, unbeknownst to the Moscow government captured the fortress of Azov. This opened the way for the Russians to the Azov and Black Seas, and protected them from the constant raids of the Turks and Tatars to the south of the Moscow state. But, fearing complications in relations with Turkey, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich did not accept Azov, ordering the Cossacks to leave him. By genre, this is a historical story. The first part of the story resembles a business document in style, it says in detail about the number of the Turks, the dates are indicated: "inst. On the 24th day in the first hour of the day, they came to us to plow it under the city))," at every head in the regiment of yanychens, 12,000 each)) ... The entire work, in fact, is an official report on the events of the Azov sitting, tk. at the beginning it says that “we came ... to the Grand Duke Mikhail Fedorovich ... the Don Cossacks ... and brought a painting to their siege seat)). Further, the narration presents this painting. The story intertwines different styles, for example, before the start of hostilities, an ambassador comes from the Turks with a speech in which he tries to call for repentance and pity: “you attacked him, like smooth wolves, and you didn’t spare him any male age ... and you put a fierce name on yourself bestial ". Further, service is offered to the Turkish king for a fee. After that, the response message of the Cossacks is given, in which they talk about their distrust of the Turks and about the insidious plans of the tsar. These messages give the story a rhetorical, oratorical style. The work is also distinguished by the lyricism of style: for example, the prayer of the Cossacks before the battle, the repentance of the Cossacks before the tsar: “Forgive us, serfs of our sinners, Tsar Tsar and Grand Duke Mikhailo Fedorovich)). This poetic passage is based on a Cossack folk song, which speaks of the influence of folklore on the story. The influence of military stories (in the descriptions of battles) is also noticed here. In the last part, the rhetorical style again arises - the exchange of messages between the Cossacks and the Turks. Then a vision is given: the Mother of God appears to the Cossacks and blesses them for battle. Then again the story acquires a documentary style - it tells about the number of living and wounded Cossacks after the battle, the exact dates are given (the capture of Azov, September 26, when “the Turks and the Turks and the Crimean tsar ... ran to drive us away with eternal shame))). ,

The story is distinguished by patriotic pathos, accuracy of descriptions, common language and poetry of style, in which traditional techniques of military tales and Don folklore are noticeable. This is an original, innovative work both in content and in style.

43. General characteristics of satirical stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories. The work of V.P. Adrianova-Peretz "At the Origins of Russian Satire".

In the 17th century. satire is very evolving. Satirical stories can be divided into 3 groups: antifeudal, anti-clerical and everyday. Antifeudal ones include "The Tale of Ruff Ershovich", "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court". To the anticlerical ones - "Kolyazinskaya petition", "The Tale of the hawk maker". Household stories are fictional. Heroes and events are fictional in the works. This type includes the "Tale of the Grief-Misfortune". They reflected the drama of the collision of "old" and "new" in the sphere of personal and social life. "The Tale of the hawk maker" has 3 parts: 1-introduction, 2-conversation of the hawk maker with the inhabitants of paradise, 3-exit of John the Theologian. This construction speaks of the novelistic nature of the work. This tale belongs to anti-clerical satire. The first part tells about who the hawk maker is: "who drinks a runner on the feasts of God." He dies and an angel comes after him, after which the second part begins - the communication of the hawk maker with those who come to the gates of paradise - the Apostle Peter, the Apostle Paul, King David, King Solomon. The hawk maker asks them to let him in, but they answer him that sinners cannot go to heaven. To which the hawk maker remembers something from their life about each, from which everyone is "put off, put to shame by fast." In the third part, John the Theologian approaches the gates, who also says: "You cannot enter Paradise by a hawk." To which the hawk maker replies that in his Gospel it is written: "if we love one another, but God will keep us both." And he says that then John must either let him in, or deny the writing of the Gospel. This is how the hawk maker goes to heaven. In this work, the Highest dogma is violated, the Divine judgment turns out to be unjust. A sinner goes to heaven. This story - a parody of medieval legends about the afterlife - angrily denounces church piety and church veneration of glorified saints. All the saints mentioned here turn out to be unworthy of paradise. And the hawk maker acts as an angry denouncer and at the same time a cunning orator. Therefore, this story was included in the index of prohibited books.

44. Problems and genre ambiguity of "everyday" stories of the 17th century. Analysis of one of the stories.

By the second half of the 17th century. In the Russian literature, a special genre variety of the story is emerging - everyday life, which reflects the drama of the collision of "old" and "novelty" in the sphere of personal and social life. If real heroes of historical stories became participants in unreal events, then the adventures of fictional characters in everyday stories were firmly inscribed in the surrounding Russian reality. All events and characters in these works are fictional. These works were distinguished by their journalism and copyright freedom. The author himself could decide the dispute in favor of this or that hero, depending on his moral positions. The everyday story of the late Middle Ages acquires the features of philosophical prose. The everyday story reflected the democratization of the hero, the emerging interest in “ little man ". "The Tale of Misfortune" was created in the merchant environment in the second half of the 17th century. the story is written in folk verse, on a household plot, accompanied by lyrical moral admonitions. The hero of the story is Well done, he has no name, did not obey his parents, who said: "Do not go, child, to feasts and brothers, do not sit on a meal, do not drink, child, two spells at once!" ... He "wanted to live as he liked" and did the opposite, so he fell "into immense nakedness and barefoot." And the story draws a parallel between Adam and Eve, who succumbed to temptation, and the good fellow. The image of a tempting serpent, a “named brother,” appears, who solders him and then steals from him. Further, the parallel runs through the motive of exile-Well done "shamelessly ... appear to his father and mother" and he decides to leave "to another country." There he goes to a feast, where he tells people about everything and asks for help. They help him, they give him advice based on the housebuilding morality. Thanks to them, Well done “from great reason he made a belly more than an old man; looked after his bride according to custom. " Grief-Misfortune learned about this and appeared to the Good Man in a dream, foreshadowing: "You will be poisoned from the bride ... from gold and silver to be killed." But the good fellow did not believe the dream, then the Grief appeared to him in a dream in the form of the archangel Gabriel, saying that it was bliss to be poor and drunk. After that, the Good fellow follows the instructions of Grief, but then he realizes his mistake: “before the trouble, the hammer, he was dumbfounded”. But Grief does not let him go, saying that the Good fellow will not go anywhere from him. Having fought in vain with the Grief, "the young man went to the monastery to get tonsured," and this was how he was saved. The hero of the story is a degraded person, but he is worried about it. This is the first image of a tramp in Russian literature, to whom the author sympathizes, but at the same time condemns. The image of Grief is built on folklore principles. Grief forces a person to choose the wrong path, but it is also a retribution for his mistakes when he says: "But if he does not listen to his parents for good, I will learn that, Unfortunate Woe." This work is similar in genre to a parable or a lesson, since saturated with morality, cited by a specific example. Also, the story is very close to folk songs about the Mountain, some places are epic in nature (for example, the arrival of the Young Man at the feast and his boasting). The work is close to folklore, which can be seen in the comparisons: Well done - "gray dove", Woe - "Gray hawk", etc. Based on this, we can say that the story is a fusion of folklore and literature, it goes beyond genre systems, combining many genres and traditions.

45. The history of the emergence and repertoire of the court theater. The play "Judith".

The court theater of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was founded in October 1672 and became the new state "fun". The tsar hired foreign actors for his theater. The researchers believe that the initiator of the creation of this theater is the boyar Artamon Matveyev. He had his own home theater with musicians, he himself repeatedly acted as an actor. Until 1672, performances were staged in the Izmailovsky Palace, in the Kremlin, in the house of the Tsar's father-in-law, the boyar Miloslavsky, in the "comedy chorus" in the Aptekarsky Dvor. Writing the first play on the biblical story about Esther and her marriage to the Persian king, after which she discovered a conspiracy, and she saved her people from extermination, the king entrusted the pastor of the Moscow German settlement Gregory. The main problems of the play: true royal power and mercy, pride and humility, were very popular at that time. Its premiere took place on October 17, 1672. The play consisted of a prologue and 7 acts, divided into phenomena. The performance went on for 10 hours without a break. The performance delighted the king. This is how the history of Russian theater began from the court theater, and the history of Russian drama began with Artaxerxes' action. The first plays on the Russian stage were written on the subjects of the Bible, the lives of saints, history and ancient mythology. The connection of the plays with modernity was emphasized by poetic prefaces. Such plays include the play "Judith". It tells of the siege by the Assyrian troops under the leadership of the commander Holofernes of the Jewish city of Betulia and his assassination by the Betulian Judith. In the play of 7 acts, divided into "canopy", pathetic scenes are sometimes replaced by comic ones, in addition to heroic faces, clownish characters act in the play. For example, when Judith announces his intention to kill Holofernes, and the situation becomes tense, because everyone is worried, Abra the maid Judith asks: "What are the Asirians: are they, are they people?" The connection of the play with the present is evidenced by the appeal to Alexei Mikhailovich, which precedes the text of the play. The genre of the first plays of the Russian theater was close to the "English" comedies, their artistic specificity was in the abundance of bloody, crudely naturalistic scenes and dramatic collisions. For example, Judith showed everyone the bloody head of Holofernes. After that, Judith says to the servant Abra: "Quietly put yu in your feast," and she praises Judith's bravery and utters a comic phrase: "What will that wretched man say when he wakes up, and Eudith left with his head?" The captured soldier Susakim, a comic character, is subjected to an "imaginary execution." Rising up, the hero can not understand for a long time whether he is alive, and having found clothes and shoes, he pretends that he is looking for his head, asking: “Oh, gentlemen! If any of you ... hid my chapter, and I humbly ask him ... that he return it to me. " The "fickleness" of life is emphasized by the movement of the action in the play. In the play, it is transferred from the palace to the military camp of Holofernes, and from there to the besieged city and the house of Judith. The official speech of the courtiers is replaced by the riotous song of drunken soldiers, and the lyrical speeches of the heroines are replaced by choruses. Thus, this play was typical of that time and was a shining example of 17th century drama.

46. ​​School theater. "The comedy of the parable of the prodigal son."

At the end of the 17th century. in Russia, a school theater was born. Based on the plots of the books of Scripture, the works of school drama consisted of long monologues written in syllabics, they were pronounced not only by biblical characters, but also by allegorical images (Mercy, Envy). These plays were staged at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, at the Zaikonospassky school of Simeon of Polotsk, at the Moscow Slavonic-Greco-Roman Academy, at the Dmitry Rostovsky school. One of the first Russian enlighteners and poets of the Baroque was Simeon Polotsky. The plays "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son" and "The Tragedy of King Nebuchadnezzar" brought him fame. The "Comedy" was written on the gospel story, it contained a conflict typical of the era when "children" did not listen to their parents, were burdened by their care, left home in dreams of seeing the world. The problem of the young man's behavior was reflected in the stories of the second half of the 17th century, such as "The Tale of Grief-Misfortune", "The Tale of Savva Gruditsin", "The Tale of Frol Skobeev". The play is small, its composition is very simple, the scene is conditional, the number of characters is small, and the characters are unnamed (for example, Father, Sue the youngest, Son the elder, Servant of Bludnago, etc.). There are no allegories in the play, and all this brings Comedy closer to school dramas and ensured its success. The comedy begins with a prologue, which encourages to watch this play with attention. Then the first part begins, where the father distributes the inheritance to his sons, for which they thank the father, but the younger one asks for blessings and says: “I will start my path. What will I get in the house? What will I study? Better in my wanderings I'll get rich with my mind. " In the second part, the Youngest Son leaves home and talks about his drunkenness and revelry. The third part consists of only one sentence: Prodigal son hungover, servants give various consoles; vi ^ abysmal. " V ~ 4-<ш_частиговорвтсал его нищете и голоде. В 5-ой части сын возвращается к отцу, а в 6-ой он показан уже одетым и накормленным, восхваляющим Бога. Далее следует эпилог, в котором говорится о назначении пьесы и наставляет^ запомнить её. Из всего этого следует, что стиль пьесы-поучительный. И несмотря на то, что она названа комедией, по сути своей это притча.

47. Poetic originality of poetry collections of Simeon Polotsky.

One of the first Russian enlighteners and poets of the Baroque was Simeon Polotsky. Shortly before his death, he collected the written and poems in huge collections - "Rhyme" and "Vertograd multicolored". His hard work was associated with the task of rooting on Russian soil a new verbal culture, baroque in nature. The "helicopter" he created amazed the reader with its "multicolor")). The poems were devoted to a variety of topics and are arranged in the collection by thematic headings, where they were arranged in alphabetical order. In these collections, he denounced what was at odds with his idea of ​​the ideal, and tirelessly praised the king, since believed that this was his "service" to Russia. Simeon Polotskiy is a poet-experimenter who turned to the means of painting and architecture in order to give visualization to his poems, to amaze the reader's imagination. In the "Russian Eagle" there is a form "acrostic", the initial letters of which form a sentence: "Give Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Lord, many years", as well as poems-rebuses, "echo" with rhyming questions and answers, curly poems. This demanded skill and sharpness of mind from the poet. In Baroque poetry, “multilingual” poems were also cultivated, which was reflected in Polotsky's poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, and Latin. Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through a high style oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a passion for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by him: "good-natured", "divinely inspired", etc. The things and phenomena depicted by him often had an allegorical meaning, they "spoke", teaching. Sometimes the lesson took the form of an entertaining, satirical story. For example, the poems "Drinking" (a drunkard, having come home, saw instead of 2 sons, 4, because he had double in his eyes; he began to accuse his wife of debauchery and ordered to pick up a red-hot piece of iron to prove But the wife asks her husband to give her a piece from the oven, after which, having burnt himself, he becomes sober and understands everything. Everything ends with morality), "Toads of the obedient" (the toads in the swamp screamed and disturbed the "praying monk." swamp and says to the toads: "In the name of Christ I will bequeath to you ... not to be such", after which the toads were no longer heard. At the end, a moral is given, where the cry of toads is compared with the "saping" of women and it is said that you can silence them in the same way ). Scientists identify 3 main tendencies in the work of Simeon: didactic and educational ("Vertograd multicolored"), panegrical ("Rhymologion") and polemic (the treatise "The Wand of Government" directed against the schismatics).

The origins and poetic originality of the Baroque style in Russian literature.

Baroque is one of the first European styles to be represented in Russian culture. Italy is considered the birthplace of the Baroque, the country where it reached its climax - Spain. Baroque came to Russia from Poland through Ukraine and Belarus. In Russia, it replaced the Middle Ages and became a kind of Renaissance of Russian culture. This led to the loss of the religious and philosophical self-depth of the Baroque and its contribution to the secularization of culture. Therefore, the baroque in Russian culture acquired an optimistic pathos, without developing the philosophical motives of "the frailty of being", and proclaimed human life as a lot of pleasures and fascinating travel. This idea of ​​the "diversity" of the world has formed in the literature a new type of hero-catcher of Fortune, an inquisitive and enterprising person who enjoys life. Baroque in its Russian version mainly affected the culture of the upper classes, it was not large-scale, because was limited in time. It glorified science, education and reason. In Baroque poetry, sophistication and learning were valued, "multilingual" poems were welcomed, which was reflected in Polotsky's poem dedicated to Christmas, which he wrote in Slavic, Polish, Latin. Baroque traditions also manifested themselves through a high style oriented towards the Church Slavonic language with a passion for complex words. Simeon, for example, used complex adjectives, often invented by him: "good-natured" ^ "divinely inspired" and so on. For all the elitism, the Baroque was addressed to the people, served the purposes of their education and upbringing. Saturated with scientific and journalistic material, historical and geographical information, Baroque poetry strove to go beyond the boundaries of literature. The baroque discoveries include a new look at a person, the image of which is devoid of Renaissance harmony. An intricate plot forced the heroes to actively move in space, an abundance of landscape and portraits appeared in the work. The baroque world amazed with its whimsical forms, diversity and polyphony. And the Russian version of the Baroque, in contrast to the European, was distinguished by its moderation. In the Russian tradition, interest in naturalistic scenes of love and death, descriptions of the afterlife, was also weakened. The Baroque rooted poetry in Russian literature, enriching it with new poetic forms. Their range is very wide: from poetic transcriptions of liturgical texts to epigrams, from panegric greetings to the tsar to inscriptions for images of alphabets. The baroque emancipated the poet, giving him freedom in choosing the form of work, and this search often led to the destruction of the boundaries between genres, different types of art and art and science. Poems could take the form of a dialogue, become part of a pictorial composition, etc. the form began to prevail over the content: poets compose acrostics, figured verses, create labyrinths with the phrase "echo" read many times. "Leonin's" poems with rhyming semi-verses are coming into fashion. Although the literature of the Russian baroque seems far from strict norms and canons, it had its own pattern, which led to the emergence of stable images and phraseological units: tsar - "eagle", "sun", Russia - "sky". Later, these formulas, ideas and techniques were assimilated and modified in the literature of Russian classicism.

1. Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state and homeland.
2. The main theme of Old Russian literature is world history and the meaning of human life.
3. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, who is capable of sacrificing the most precious thing - life for the common good. She expresses a deep faith in strength, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of a person to raise his spirit and overcome evil.
4. Historicism is a characteristic feature of Old Russian literature. The heroes are mainly historical figures. Literature strictly follows fact.
5. A feature of the artistic creativity of the ancient Russian writer is the so-called "literary etiquette". This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what and how should be portrayed.
6. Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing and is based on the Christian book culture and developed forms of oral poetry. During this time, literature and folklore were closely related. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, pictorial means of folk art.
7. The originality of Old Russian literature in the portrayal of the hero depends on the style and genre of the work. In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created.
8. In Old Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was the "use" of the genre, the "practical purpose" for which this or that work was intended.
9. The traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the works of Russian writers of the 18th-20th centuries.

CONTROL QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. As Academician D.S. Likhachev Old Russian literature? Why does he call it "a single grand whole, one colossal work"?
2. With what does Likhachev compare ancient literature and why?
3. What are the main virtues of ancient literature?
4. Why would the artistic discoveries of the literature of subsequent centuries be impossible without the works of ancient literature? (Think about what qualities of ancient literature were assimilated by the Russian literature of modern times. Give examples from the works of Russian classics known to you.)
5. What did Russian poets and prose writers appreciate and what did they perceive from ancient literature? What did A.S. wrote about her Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, A.I. Herzen, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak?
6. What does ancient literature write about the benefits of books? Give examples of "praise to books" known in ancient Russian literature.
7. Why were the concepts of the power of the word so high in ancient literature? What were they connected with, what did they rely on?
8. What does the gospel say about the word?
9. What do writers compare books to and why; why books are rivers, sources of wisdom, and what do the words mean: "if you diligently search in books for wisdom, you will find great benefit for your soul"?
10. Name the monuments of ancient Russian literature known to you and the names of their authors-scribes.
11. Tell us about the way of writing and the nature of the ancient manuscripts.
12. What are the historical prerequisites for the emergence of ancient Russian literature and its specific features, in contrast to the literature of the new era?
13. What is the role of folklore in the formation of ancient literature?
14. Using vocabulary and reference material, briefly retell the history of the study of ancient monuments, write down the names of the scientists who study them, and the stages of study.
15. What is the image of the world and man in the minds of Russian scribes?
16. Tell us about the image of a person in ancient Russian literature.
17. Name the themes of ancient literature, using vocabulary and reference material, characterize its genres.
18. List the main stages in the development of ancient literature.

Read also the articles of the section "National Uniqueness of Ancient Literature, Its Origin and Development."

Russian literature up to the 18th century is traditionally referred to as “ancient”. Old Russian literature represents 2/3 of all literature. During this time, many monuments (about 40 thousand) were created, most of which have not reached us. In the initial period (10-11 centuries), the books of the 11th century are based on the books of the 10th century: the treaties of the Russians with the Greeks and with other peoples. There were books written on wood, on ceramics. Earlier texts have not been found.

Framework- The beginning of the 10-11th century - before the reforms of Peter (late 17th).

Specific features of Old Russian literature:

1.medieval character

-religiosity- the main topic is religion. Literature is authoritarian, trail. view of the world: the world is binary, nature is also binary.

-the earthly world is secondary>>> the purpose of literature is to bring a person closer to the heavenly world

Dual sense organs (smart eyes - bodily eyes, smart ears - bodily ears, etc.) >>> the task of literature is a spiritual look.

-etiquette- a set of ideas about how events should have developed, how the actors should have led, what words should be used to describe events. (Likhachev). >>> Features of medieval artistic consciousness. (description of princes, saints - description by types of images).

Consciousness is different than a person of modern times. The new is heresy. The main thing is authority - the Bible, the gospel.

It was important set of ideas about the world- did not notice the passage of time, did not proceed from the idea of ​​progress, the time in the past (paradise) is better. The future must return to the past. The passage of time and the change of a person was not noticed, Images also did not change. And in the 19th century, we see the dynamics of images.

The official status of a person- status in the secular hierarchy (prince) or ecclesiastical (saints, metropolitans).

Anonymity- we do not know the names, or we know them if the hero possessed extra-literary authority. (Metropolitan Hilarion)

Syncretism. It is a combination of various qualities inherent in different cultural formats. For example, for a medieval person, the world around us is the world of symbols (7,12 - symbols of Christ, 4 - earth, 3 - divine). The symbol depends on the context: actual meaning, allegorical, tropological, anagogical. Previously, books were addressed to anyone, now they are not. Then the descriptions of the appearance of people were conditional, there were no landscapes, descriptions of everyday scenes, pictures. (Rublev's icon is a symbol)

Handwriting - the books were created in a single copy, copied >>> variability texts >>> a big role of textual criticism.

2.national specifics

connection between Old Russian literature and literature of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Military-patriotic issues

The fate of the little man

The idea of ​​forgiveness (Monomakh - Tolstoy)

The big role of satire, criticality

Criticism is a mediator between literature and life

Russian literature - literature of large spaces (panoramic view)

The historical path of Russian literature (there was no Renaissance, European literature was spotted selectively). Literature - the legacy of Byzantine literature

3.literary

Performed many different functions >>> not actually literature

There is no description of the appearance of people, landscapes >>> interaction with painting

Also, the main features of culture and literature include:

International language of culture. In Slavic countries it was the Church Slavonic language, in European countries it was Latin. Dr-rus lit-ra was written in Church Slavonic.

Communication with extra-literary functions ... There was a connection with church rites. If in Europe there were: theology, philosophy, thin. lit. That in Russian traditions - the indivisibility of these forms. Back in the 19th century, Russian philosophy and theology were not completely separated from culture and literature.

The originality of the historical and literary process in Russia : there was no revival. Baroque.

A special idea of ​​space. The space is huge, endless (for example, the word about Igor's regiment).

Criticality. An important role was played by the satire of the 19.20 century. ("The Word about Igor's Regiment" - critical)

Old Russian literature in our sense is moreliterature . The specific features of dr-rus literature were:

Handwritten texts, i.e. in one copy

In ancient Russia, the language changed faster. The scribe could have corrected anything

Dialects of different regions also influenced and made their own amendments to the text.

These traits are related to dr-rus lit-ru with folklore.

The texts were in a relationship of complementarity. The texts were universal, for the truth. There is no individualization of a person, description of appearance, description of a landscape. Miniatures supplemented the verbal descriptions.

Relationship to texts and books - the book is an expression of the value system. 19th century - change of the value system - 20 years (Fathers and children). 20th century - decades. The book linked generations. Preserved 20-30 thousand Old Russian books. Anti-market attitude (not an object of trade) - you cannot buy and sell. You can bequeath, donate.

Rewriting was honorary (princes, princesses, monks, bishops). The books were priceless. Ideally, they could not be bought. They were passed down from generation to generation. Many books are based on a calendar principle, since the reading was timed to coincide with religious holidays. For example, the Gospel exists in aproposal form (according to the calendar).

The spread of bookishness in Russia in the X-early XI century. faced considerable difficulties. There were still very few literate people, and even more so skilful scribes. The oldest surviving before us, manuscripts date back to the second half of the 11th century. Ostromir Gospel copied from the Bulgarian original " Izbornik”, A small collection of words and teachings. The creation of the most ancient literary monuments known to us can also be attributed to this time: “ Words about Law and Grace"Metropolitan Hilarion, chronicles, etc. However, all of them have survived only in later copies.

We can, however, imagine character of literature that time. Her the genre system met spiritual needs, typical of Christian states in the Middle Ages. Literature was devoted mainly to worldview issues.“Old Russian literature can be viewed as the literature of one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this topic is the meaning of human life ", - so briefly formulated characteristic features of the literature of the most ancient period of Russian history D.S. Likhachev.

The basis for Christian doctrine and worldviews were bible books(or Scripture), as well as the writings of the most authoritative theologians. The Bible includes the books of the Old and New Testaments. The popularity of the Psalter was enormous - a collection of 150 psalms (prayers and hymns). The Bible was fully translated in Russia only in the 15th century, but some biblical books became known in Slavic translations already in Kievan Rus.

Genres: sermons (for church life), life, walking, annals (PVL), sermons ("the word about the law and grace of Illarion", hagiography (The Legend of Boris and Gleb), walking ("beyond the three seas of Afanasy Nikitin").

Genres that gave a spiritual view of the world (sermons, lives, teachings). Sermon is a sacred character and unites two temporal layers. Teachings are a didactic genre. Vladimir Monomakh writes his teaching on the basis of his biography. And genres that depict the world in a bodily form (the walking of Hegumen Daniel (water touches everything), Military story (battle, battle)).

Simple and complex genres. The chronicle could include the life of (Boris and Gleb). PVL - military tale, folklore genres (family legends, toponymic). Small genres (Princess Olga asks riddles). The circulation came as part of the chronicle, it may include small genres (folklore, af nikitin about monkeys, daniel - a description of the apocryphal legends that he heard in the holy land).

"A word about law and grace » written by the Kiev priest Illarion (future metropolitan), was first pronounced by him in 1049 in honor of the completion of the construction of the Kiev defensive structures. Hilarion's "Word" is a kind of church-political treatise in which the Russian land and its princes are glorified.

In addition to "The Word of Law and Grace", the works of Kliment Smolyatich and Kirill Turovsky and "Instruction" "by Prince VM have come down to us.

"Instruction" of Prince Vladimir Monomakh united four independent works: this is actually "Instructions", an autobiography and "Letter to Oleg Svyatoslavovich", a prayer.

"Instructions" by Vladimir Monomakh - for now the only example in ancient Russian literature of political and moral instruction, created not by a spiritual leaf, but by a statesman."Precept", as later on "The Lay of Igor's Campaign," was not so much based on the traditions of certain literary genres, so much met the political needs of its time. Monomakh included his autobiography in the "Teachings".

The oldest Russian chronicle. The emergence of writing made it possible to record oral historical legends. This is how chronicle writing arose. It was the chronicle that was destined, right up to the 18th century, to become one of the leading literary genres, in the depths of which Russian storytelling developed.

The history of the oldest chronicle writing is hypothetical to a certain extent. We have only lists of chronicles of a very late time (the Novgorod Chronicle of the 13th-14th centuries, the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, the Ipatiev Chronicle of the early 15th century), reflecting not the most ancient chronicle vaults, but their subsequent processing.

Initial annals . The oldest surviving chronicle collection is the "Tale of Bygone Children", created presumably around 1113. Chronicle writing as a genre appears, apparently, only during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054.

The next stage in the development of Russian chronicle writing falls on the 1060s and 70s, associated with the activities of Nikon, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. "Initial vault". Around 1095, a new collection of chronicles was created, which A.A. Shakhmatov called the "Primary Code". The compiler of the "National Assembly" continued Nikon's collection, bringing the account of events from 1073 to 1095, and gave his story a more journalistic character.

Further development is characterized by a mixture of genres from the 13th century to the end of the 15th century. Regional versions of literature (Tver, Novgorod), softening of accents, the main genre of the story appear. Life plays an important role (the style changes, the role of the author increases (Life of Sergius of Radonezh, Stephanie of Perm)

Tue floor 15-16 in.- epistolary type (letters of Ivan the Terrible). The century of journalism. The journalism of Maxim the Greek.

17th century- the medieval system of genres is destroyed, lives disappear, they turn into stories (the lives of Archpriest Avvakum, about Martha and Mary), the war story becomes a historical story, the historical one absorbs folklore and features of utopia (in reality, one thing, and the author creates a different reality).

P. S... Girls, I don’t know if it’s necessary about translated literature, just in case I’ll leave it, it’s never too late to delete it !!

Translated literatureXI- XIIIcenturies.Chronicles. Among the first translations and the first books brought to Russia from Bulgaria were the Byzantine chronicles. Chronicles are works of historiography that set out world history. The Chronicle of George Amartol played an especially important role in the development of the original Russian chronicle writing and Russian chronography. Its compiler is a Byzantine monk. Amartol in Greek is a sinner; it is the traditional, self-deprecating epithet for a monk.

No later than the XI century. in Russia, the Chronicle of John Malala also became known - it was valuable for ancient Russian historiographers and scribes, first of all, because it significantly supplemented the Chronicle of George Amartol.

Stories. "The Tale of Akira the Wise." This story originated in Assyro-Babylonia in the 7th century. BC. This story is interesting as an action-packed work.

Apocrypha.(column apocrypha- hidden). In medieval writing, apocrypha became widespread - legends about the characters of the biblical history, however, plotting different from those contained in the biblical canonical books. Finally, apocryphal motives could be included in the works of traditional genres, for example, in the lives, for example, the popular apocrypha - "The Virgin's Walking Through the Torment." Apocrypha were found in ancient Russian writing throughout its history.

The oldest Russian lives: "Legend" and "Reading" about princes Boris and Gleb, "Life of the Monk Theodosius of the Caves" by Nestor.

Two main groups of hagiographic plots: some of the lives were "entirely devoted to the theme of the ideal Christian hero who left the" worldly "life in order to deserve life" eternal "(after death) by exploits, while the heroes of another group of lives seek to justify by their behavior not only the common Christian, but also the feudal ideal.

The term "ancient literature" is understood as a peculiar layer of Russian culture, covering the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries. The works created in these centuries are distinguished by their originality and originality. The differences are primarily due to the fact that it was not like any other in the medieval period.

Specific traits

The main feature that ancient Russian literature possesses, and at the same time its key difference from the works that are present in Western European culture, is that it was by no means intended for entertainment and idle reading. The goal set by the authors of those years was primarily spiritual instruction. Their works taught, passed on the life experience of generations, brought up a patriotic spirit. Consequently, the characteristic features of this literature are instructive, documentary, journalistic.

One of the main subjects of artistic depiction in the works of that era is a real historical event. There is no fictional storyline in them. The authors, as a rule, depicted those events that they themselves witnessed. They could not take a detached objective position.

The works that include ancient literature are imbued with an extraordinary patriotic spirit. There is historicism in them, but at the same time, one more characteristic feature- anonymity. Very few authors left their names on the pages of these creations, although they wrote them, of course, by hand. The handwritten character can also be attributed to the distinctive properties of ancient literature. The first printed books in Russia appeared later than in the countries of Western Europe. That is why the cultural monuments of Ancient Rus are, as a rule, handwritten texts.

Influence of other literary movements

As already mentioned, the authors of ancient Russian works did not consider it necessary to entertain their readers with adventure stories that were easy to understand. Therefore, there is no fiction in the books of that period. An important function was the development of spiritual consciousness.

A huge responsibility was entrusted to the writers of Ancient Rus. Taking a clear civic position, they glorified their native land and worried about strengthening it. According to modern critics, the work of ancient literature contributed to the consolidation of the unity of the people. The proof of this point of view is "The Lay of Igor's Campaign."

Alexander Musin-Pushkin

This man was famous in his day. public figure, a scrupulous collector of oral folk art. He was extremely interested in the history of ancient Russian literature. And "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" was first read by this very man.

In 1792 he worked in the archives of the Spaso-Yaroslavl Monastery and discovered a copy of an ancient manuscript. Unfortunately, during the Patriotic War of 1812, this document was burned down. Musin-Pushkin transported the find to the Moscow archive, where it died in the legendary fire. Thus, neither the original nor the copies have survived to this day. However, there is evidence of the authenticity of the Lay. Researchers studying the history of ancient literature have found excerpts from the text of the mentioned manuscript in the largest monument of Russian culture "Zadonshchina".

The basis of the plot

"The word about Igor's regiment" has, like other ancient Russian creations, historical character... The plot is based on the events associated with the campaign against the Polovtsy Novgorod-Seversky Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich. This campaign took place in 1185. The main stages of the plot, as in other works of Old Russian literature, are the outset, culmination, and denouement. This scheme is also typical for the military story - one of the main genres of this cultural period.

The plot structure of the "Lay"

The plot is placed, oddly enough, not at the beginning of the piece, but a little further. This structure is explained by the fact that the author preferred to pay attention to the introduction before. In it, he determined the time frame of his work and introduced the readers to his peculiar manner of storytelling. The beginning is Igor's decision to go hiking.

The development of the plot is about events such as the solar eclipse and the first battle. The culmination is about the defeat of the Russian army and the capture of Igor. The denouement of the plot is an escape from captivity, as well as the jubilation of the inhabitants of the Russian land.

The genre "Words about Igor's Campaign" is defined in different ways. This is a song, a poem, and a heroic story. Most likely, this work can be attributed to one of the main artistic trends - the word. Other genres of ancient literature should also be considered. Some are original, others are borrowed from other sources.

Life

Works that include ancient literature have various forms. Life is one of the genres of that era. It belongs to church literature. The subject of depiction in such works is the life and deeds of the saints.

Life is a kind of fictional biography of this or that legendary person who is canonized. A work in this genre, as a rule, tells about events that span the period from the moment the protagonist was born and until his death. The composition has a circular structure. A striking example is the Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh.

It should be said that none of the creations of ancient Russian authors stands in isolation. The works supplemented each other, grew, gradually new stories about miracles associated with the deeds of the saints were inscribed in them. Military stories also have such a character, the plots of which are intertwined with each other.

Other genres

The chronicle was a detailed record. Of course, the main feature in the works of this genre was journalism. They almost did not use artistic means. The name itself is explained by the fact that the entries were made annually, and each of them began with the words: "In the summer ...".

The authors strove to create and approve a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person. For this, they created a kind of instructive works, which, as a rule, were part of the chronicles. The norms that were indicated in them applied to everyone - from the prince to the commoner. This genre is called teaching in ancient literature.

The military tale depicted the battles of Russian soldiers with an external enemy. Such works could be part of the chronicle. But often they were a separate full-fledged creation.

Many ancient Russian works are valuable due to their documentary character and are important historical sources and heritage of national culture.