Architectural composition of buildings. Architectural dynamics. Complex three-dimensional objects of architectural composition

Architectural composition in Architectural Desktop

Alexey Ishmyakov

The term "composition" denotes the addition, composition, construction of a work of art, certain systems of means of disclosing and organizing images, connections and relationships of these images. The study of the process and results of compositional modeling of an architectural form is engaged in a special science - the theory of architectural form and composition.

The creation of an artistic and compositional model of the future object, its fixation in volumetric models, diagrams, sketches is the most important stage of architectural design. From time immemorial, at the initial design stage, architects used an architectural composition (Fig. 1), a characteristic feature of which is a three-dimensional representation of a future building or structure.

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The process of creating an architectural work is the movement of a compositional model from the initial idea (presented in the form of the simplest geometric shapes, born of a figurative association) through the organization of space from groups of complicated forms to the constructive-technological system of documents, expressed in the concept of "project".

The traditional method of studying architectural composition (OAPK), depending on the method of using three-dimensional space, distinguishes the following types of composition: frontal, deep and spatial (Fig. 2). However, the concept of "space" does not have a clear interpretation. The fact is that traditional ways of displaying space by means of layout or graphics are very conditional. Today it is clear that the implementation of a full-fledged spatial compositional model is possible only by means of virtual computer modeling. The model of the architectural space, created by traditional means of architectural prototyping (paper, plasticine, etc.), will always be rough, primitive, conventional.

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Compared to real physical materials from which the architect creates a traditional layout (paper, cardboard, "... foam rubber, rubber sponge, loofah washcloth, deer moss, dried flowers, various herbs, alder cones ..."), virtual three-dimensional modeling has a number of undoubted advantages. It allows you to control the geometry of objects and optical properties of materials, to functionally diversify the composition of the composition.

The Autodesk Architectural Desktop (ADT) (www.autocad.ru) includes special navigation tools in a virtual three-dimensional program-generated space, allowing you to create any kind of architectural composition. So, the program makes it possible to transform an orthogonal view into a volumetric one, move a virtual observer camera around a three-dimensional object, automatically create a variety of perspective projections, project animation. In this case, the surrounding space is reproduced in exact accordance with the psychophysiological characteristics of human perception. Naturally, with this approach, there is no need for a clear classification of the types of composition.

The primary compositional idea develops only when various models of the designed object are formed (functional planning, ergonomic, constructive, etc.), which are consistent with the architectural composition, making it more precise and concretizing.

The process of working on a project begins with the formation of an abstract volumetric-spatial geometric composition that has some specific features of the future object. First, a generalized geometric model-model is created, the spatial characteristics of which correspond to the dimensions and have a characteristic silhouette-outline of the projected structure (Fig. 3). This is an intermediate stage between the abstract graphic volumetric composition (which has only artistic and applied value) and the final design solution (architectural and construction virtual model of the object, sets of working documentation) (Fig. 4).

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The modern theory of architectural composition defines the general categories of the relationship between architectural volume-mass, geometric space, physiological laws of color and light perception. Distinguish between virtual compositional models of limited and open architectural spaces.

The composition of a limited space is solved by organizing various geometric elements located within the visual boundary of the architectural space perception (along the perimeter, on the base surface and on the floor surface) (Fig. 5). Such compositional models include the volumetric-spatial composition of a separate fragment of a building or grouped fragments of a structure, interior, structural frame.

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The composition of the open space is solved by the formation of the plastic of the surface of the tectonic base and dominant objects (Fig. 6). The plasticity of the base sets the character of movement in three-dimensional space and determines the scenario for the perception of an architectural solution. Dominant objects determine the nature of the various connections between the subordinate elements of the composition. These compositional models include landscape compositions, options for volumetric solutions for the exterior of objects, scenario town-planning compositions.

It is obvious that the traditional paper-and-cardboard layout will cease to exist in the foreseeable future, since this form of presentation of design material is morally outdated and can be considered only one of the types of arts and crafts, and also serve to solve educational problems at the initial stage of mastering the profession of an architect.

Tools for creating 3D objects in ADT

A compositional model can be created with tools for solid modeling (Solids), AEC-modeling (Mass-elements), as well as using tools for editing ready-made three-dimensional objects.

A distinction is made between simple modeling, in which elementary geometric body shapes (parallelepipeds, balls, cubes, prisms, pyramids, etc.) are used, and more complex modeling, using the “Edit in place” principle.

Solids AutoCAD solid modeling is controlled from the top text menu 3D Solids, and an architectural composition ADT providing additional features 3D modeling, - from the floating toolbar Tool Palettes bookmarks Massing or from the top text menu Design the same bookmark. Both of these tools have similarities:

A set of standard command-tools is provided: Sphere(Ball), Box(Parallelepiped), Dome(Prism), Cylinder(Cylinder), etc .;

It is possible to create arbitrary 3D objects from sketches - closed polylines - using tools Extrude(Extrude / Pull), Revolve(Rotation);

The tools for editing three-dimensional objects are very diverse, but they are based on three basic logical operations: Union(Union), Subtract(Subtraction), Intersect(Intersection).

Practice shows that when modeling, in some cases it is convenient to use Solids bodies, and sometimes AEC Mass-elements ADT.

Solids bodies make it easy to create curved objects with complex paths (for example, pipelines, individual elements of architectural decoration) in a way Extrude-Lofting(Pulling). Solids tools allow you to achieve correct projections of sections or elevations, providing suppression of unnecessary lines, separation into visible (contour) and invisible (hidden) lines.

AEC Mass-elements provides better interaction with ADT objects, resulting in an order of magnitude faster projection speed.

Complex three-dimensional objects of architectural composition

When creating complex geometric shapes of elements of architectural structures and decor, a universal geometric principle is applied Boolean(Logical operations), used when working with three-dimensional objects in all software products without exception.

In ADT, logical operations provide the ability from a few simple three-dimensional objects to form three-dimensional objects of very complex shapes that cannot be reproduced using the descriptive geometry apparatus known to every architect. This allows you to virtually infinitely expand the range of techniques and methods of shaping. Both AutoCAD Solids and Mass Elements ADT objects can be used to create complex shapes.

As an example, consider the complication of the form of the compositional model of the Mass Elements ADT object:

1. Create an object Solids - a parallelepiped. Right-click and select the command from the context menu Convert toMass Element.

2. After the prompt appears in the command line Erase ... geometry Yes / No click Enter.

3. Press the right mouse button and select the command Name... Enter a name that can be alphanumeric (e.g. Forma_1), press Enter.

4. A new object will appear - Mass ElementADT matching Solids objects and located on a special layer A-Area-Mass... Turn off the layer Solids.

5. Highlight Mass Element... Align the cursor with one of the Grips marks located on the edges of the selected object. The stamp will be highlighted in red, and the front face will be highlighted Mass Element... This operation provides the ability to change the position of any front face of the object. Using AutoCAD's polar tracking and object snaps modes, you can specify the direction of movement of a face and enter an offset value at the command line (Figure 7).

6. The position of the coordinate system at the time of editing does not matter, because when you specify the Grips-mark, it is automatically changed. When you finish repositioning a face, the original coordinate system is restored.

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7. Interaction of logical operations between Mass Element is carried out in the same way as for Solids bodies: select Mass Element, press the right mouse button, open the bookmark Boolean(Logical operations) and select any of the three suggested commands - Union(Union), Subtract(Subtraction) or Intersect(Intersection) (fig. 8). It is possible to perform logical operations between Solids and Mass Elements.

8. Mass Elements objects are also available for operation Split(Separation) - analogue of the AutoCAD Solids command Slice(Cutting). Highlight Mass Element, right-click, select command Split... Sequentially indicate on the plan the first and second points of the cutting plane. The division is always done with a plane perpendicular to the plan, and the separated objects become completely independent. Continuation of changes to the object in the plan is done by stretching the Grips (Fig. 9).

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9. To create additional faces on the surfaces of Mass Elements, select Mass Element, right-click and select the command SplitFace(Share the line) After specifying the first and second points on the face, an additional face will be formed, which can also be divided (Fig. 10).

10. To create complex architectural compositions, a method is used to determine the interaction of grouped objects Mass Elements, which are called Mass Group(Composition group).

Unlike the traditional method of working with an architectural form, which involves creating graphic images on paper or on the plane of a paper sheet during layout, it is now proposed to use various combinations of volumetric linear rod objects, plates and arrays that easily interact with each other and transform into each other. Development of a large number Time-consuming rough sketches from 3D objects are accomplished almost instantly. No other platform provides ADT functionality.

1 Mardasov N.D., Dlugach E.I. Model design method in civil engineering. Moscow: Stroyizdat, 1980.

"CAD and Graphics" 10 "2000

The artistic expression of buildings is achieved by using architectural composition... Composition is a Latin word meaning composition or combination. Architectural composition- construction (buildings or structures), implying the establishment of the unity of functional purpose, structural structure and aesthetic qualities.

The complex process of creating an architectural composition includes: the development of a space-planning solution and a structural scheme of a building, solutions for its interiors and external appearance, establishing the relationship between the external appearance and the interior, between the external appearance of the building and the environment.

The architectural composition of the building as a whole includes the composition of all its constituent elements: external volumes and internal spaces, facades and interiors, individual parts of the building, details.

The main components of the architectural composition of the building are its internal space and external volume... The combination of these two components forms volumetric-spatial structure of the building.

The volume of a building visible from the outside can be of various shapes and consist of one or several parts, each of which is an independent volume.

The architectural composition of the interior and exterior of the building is always spatial. The inner space and the outer volume are closely related, since the outer volume depends on the size and shape of the inner space. The relationship between interior space and exterior volume is very diverse. They are set for each individual case during the design process in accordance with the functional purpose of the building and artistic objectives. In this case, a prerequisite should be compositional unity between the space of the building and its external volume. Unity is usually not achieved when the dimensions and shape of the external volume do not correspond to the dimensions and shapes of the internal space, or, conversely, when the internal space does not receive a corresponding compositional expression in the external appearance. An example of this is the GUM in Moscow. Its facades do not express in their composition the internal structure of the building.

There may be cases when the internal space relative to the external volume may have negligible dimensions or be completely absent. For example: memorial structures (monuments), the leading role in the composition is played by ideological and artistic expressiveness.

Another case is when the internal space can exist without a visible external volume. It includes underground structures (metro, cellars, underground garages.)

A special group is made up of buildings and structures in which the internal space, although there is, is insufficient or inaccessible to perception (boiler houses of thermal power plants, the internal space of which is occupied by technological equipment; warehouses of bulk materials and liquids). However, even in this case, the compositional unity between the inner space and the outer volume should not be violated.

The main properties of architectural and spatial forms

architectural spatial form

Architectural and spatial forms (in particular, buildings) have a number of visually perceived properties that are important for their characteristics. These are their main properties.

1. Geometric view - the main property of the form of an architectural structure, it is determined by the ratio of the size of the form along the three coordinates of space (width, height, depth). If all three dimensions are relatively equal, the shape is volumetric. If one dimension is much smaller than the other two, the shape is flat. If one dimension is much larger than the other two, the shape is linear.

2. Dimensions of the architectural form- the property of its length in height, width, depth in relation to the size of a person and in comparison with other adjacent forms.

3. The position of the form in space in relation to the viewer; frontal, profile, horizontal; closer, further, above, below the viewer or the horizon.

4. The mass of the building in visual perception depends on the visual assessment of the amount of material of the architectural form. The largest mass is possessed by cubic or spherical dense forms, and less - hollow, flat and smooth.

5. Material texture- an important property of an architectural form, reflecting the volumetric nature of the surface, while the texture (pattern) reflects the linear structure of the material on the surface (for example, wood grain).

6. Color in architectural compositions- the property of a surface to reflect or emit light of different spectral properties. It is characterized by hue (shades), saturation (degree of color brightness), lightness (surface reflectivity).

7. Chiaroscuro- a property that reveals the distribution of light and dark areas over the surface of the form. Chiaroscuro enhances and facilitates the visual perception of the architectural form.

Most reveals the volume and texture of an architectural form, the direction of light at an angle of 45 ° to the horizon and to the vertical plane. The role of natural and artificial lighting of architectural and spatial composition (both volumetric form and interior) in creating an artistic image is especially important.

Quality characteristics of light- direct, diffuse and reflected - associated with the orientation of the building and the state of the natural environment. Direct light can illuminate the south, east and west facades of structures, penetrating interiors as a side or overhead light. It creates a joyful mood, but dazzles in work and study rooms.

Natural light reflected by the screens increases the illumination. The diffused light reflected from the firmament does not reveal shapes, therefore it is not used for deep reliefs, but it is convenient for working rooms.

Artificial lighting volumes of architectural structures are used at the level of street, main lighting and illumination of a number of architectural monuments. Artificial light was included in the interior with a more organic mass of lighting fixtures, luminous ceilings, light reflectors. The reflected light in the interior creates the illusion of lightness of form. Lighting devices in the interior sometimes acquire an independent meaning, participating in solving a compositional problem, highlighting the main thing - tectonics, form. All the considered properties of the architectural form are manifested in their totality and unity, forming complex compositional patterns.

Architectural composition(creation, composition) is a system for creating a project and the object of architecture itself.

Architectural composition- an integral system of architectural forms that meet artistic, functional and constructive-technological requirements.

The science of architectural composition studies the general patterns of form construction in architecture and the means of achieving the unity of form and content.

Architects are called upon to link three sides in a harmonious composition of the building: on the one hand - convenience and benefit(functional task), on the other - durability and economy(constructive and technical and economic task), with the third - beauty of forms(aesthetic task).

The requirements for modern architecture are scientifically grounded. Science studies the features of individual types of buildings, the relationship of premises, equipment issues, the size and shape of space required for specific social processes, lighting, acoustics. All these requirements are taken into account in the construction of public and residential buildings. Scientifically substantiated the choice of a place for residential and public buildings in the city, the placement of green areas in order to create a city as a single integral organism, taking into account the impact of climatic and natural conditions, landscape, orientation of buildings to the cardinal points.

Finally, human psychology and physiology also make demands on the architectural compositions of buildings. Architecture, being a human habitat, affects feelings, is reflected in a person's consciousness and thereby participates in the formation of his spiritual world.

The creation of the unity of the architectural composition from many components, the birth of a holistic image based on a set of requirements is the main task of architecture.

Properties of the spatial shape of objects

Before considering the various patterns of composition, it is necessary to get acquainted with the properties of the spatial form of material objects. The properties of a spatial form are understood as the totality of all its visually perceived features:

1.geometric view (configuration)

2.value

3. position in space

5. texture

6.texture

8.chiaroscuro

Geometric view- a property of a form, determined by the ratio of its dimensions along the three coordinates of space, as well as by the nature (configuration) of the surface of the form. Depending on the predominance of one of the three main dimensions, three types of form are distinguished:

1. volumetric, characterized by the relative equality of all three dimensions

2. planar, determined by a sharp (or complete) reduction in size along one of the measurement coordinates

3. linear, which is characterized by the predominance of one dimension over the other two, with their relatively small value.

Straightness(curvilinearity) of the surface. On this basis, the form is characterized by extreme conditions:

1. straight line (polygon) - circle

2. flat (cylindrical, spherical, conical) - polyhedral surface Between the limits "straight line - circle", "flat - polyhedral surface" there is an infinite series of intermediate states.

The magnitude- the property of the extension of the form and its elements in three coordinates. The size of a form is estimated in relation to the size of a person or other forms, or as the ratio of the sizes of elements of the same form.

Texture- a property that characterizes the external structure of the surface of the form (rough, smooth, etc.). The texture of the material depends on the density and the magnitude of the surface micro-distortions. One of the limits is represented by smooth surfaces, in which the elements of texture are so small that they do not visually differ. Another limit is when the texture elements are perceived in size as independent form elements and their number is small enough so that they are all clearly distinguishable. In this case, the elements of the surface texture become already elements of the division (relief) of the surface.

Texture- the external signs of the structure of the material from which the object is made, observed on the surface. Most often, wood and fabric products are characterized by texture (pattern). Various textures are used as a decorative element in the elaboration of the product. Avoid texture unusual for the material, for example, imitation of plastic under a tree, etc. The pattern of wood texture changes depending on the direction of its processing, that is, from the cutting plane - radial, tangential, radial-end, tangential-end. Color plays a significant role in revealing texture, especially the difference (contrast) in the natural color of the wood grain.

Texture and texture are active means of artistic expression. The effect of texture and texture is used primarily in order to convey the natural qualities of the material, to reveal its aesthetic originality. If the texture or texture of the material is very expressive, then their effect on the observer can be stronger than the effect of the very shape of the product. Excessive flashiness in texture or texture can be unpleasant, however. The texture and texture of surfaces should be selected taking into account the size of the product and the size of the space in which it will function.

Colour- the property of bodies to cause a particular visual sensation in accordance with the spectral composition of the reflected or emitted light. Color has such basic characteristics as hue (different shades of color), saturation (degree of brightness of a color), lightness (reflectivity of a color surface).

Properties of volumetric-spatial forms

The value is the ratio in terms of spatial extent - the height, width and depth of volumetric-spatial forms and their parts. On the basis of these ratios, proportions arise as harmonious relationships of parts with each other and with the whole.

When studying the composition of a volumetric-spatial form, the development of perception and understanding of the relationship of quantities and arising from them such phenomena as visual dynamics, subordination, strengthening of plp, weakening of massiveness, etc. is of the greatest importance. Relations further; horizontal - above, to the right, to the left. Surfaces can take various positions, all kinds of turns and tilts at different angles, that is, an infinite number of options for the ratios of only two surfaces by their position in space are possible. Form, as such, and its changes: by type (linear, planar, volumetric); on the geometric structure (parallelepiped, cylinder, cone, ball, etc.) In the indicated two directions, especially in the second, many variants of the relationship are possible (plane-curvilinear, convex-concave, different degrees of curvilinearity, etc.) ) (.

The position of forms in space is the ratio of forms and their elements in relation to the viewer and the coordinates of space. This category is completely different from magnitude and magnitude ratios. Considering, for example, a flat surface, we can distinguish such coordinate positions as horizontal, vertical, frontal and vertical profile. In relation to the viewer, these positions can change: frontal - closer, lower; vertical profile

Many architectural theorists (Vitruvius, Alberti, Palladio, etc.) wrote about proportions as a means of composition in the past, mainly linking proportions with the order system. In recent times, a number of theorists have developed geometric methods of proportioning (Hembidge, Geeka, Messel, Corbusier, etc.). The Soviet architect I.V. Zholtovsky with which countless intermediate states in terms of massiveness and spatial properties are possible. One limit - the form is maximally filled with mass (or expressed as such); another limit - the form is expressed by the minimum amount of mass. In addition to the four specified basic properties, which mainly determine the nature of the form, it is necessary to indicate the following properties: Texture, or the structure of the surface of the form, which can vary from relief to smooth, polished and mirror-like. Chiaroscuro, as the degree of illumination and shading of the form and its parts, depending on the lighting conditions (i.e., on the strength of the light sources and on the position of the surfaces of the form in relation to them) Color is a property characterized by the following main features: color tone (chromatic and achromatic hue), saturation (the degree of brightness of a color) and lightness.

Schemes. The nature of the form and texture

The change in color according to the indicated signs creates an infinite variety of young men. In the compositional use of all these properties, three main types of qualitative relationships between them have a decisive chance - contrast, nuance, identity (repetition). In contrast, very different states of any property are compared (large versus small, vertical versus horizontal, massive versus spatial, flat versus volumetric, planar versus relief, etc.).

In the nuance, close states of a property are compared. In the identity, the states of properties are repeated.

On the basis of these ratios, various compositional connections and harmonious relationships in volume-spatial forms can arise. Contrast and nuance cannot be understood statically, as unchanging relationships. These are relations of states of form properties that contribute to the emergence of artistic expressiveness of the composition as a whole. Therefore, contrast and nuance can be called compositional means.

The primary properties of the spatial form listed above are the initial and initial elements of the composition, the primary form-building material from which the composition is built. And the same primary material becomes actively influencing when it appears in the form of a harmonious relationship, that is, the primary property becomes a compositional means.

When one of the dimensions begins to predominate in the form, visual movement in the direction of this dimension begins to pick up. It clearly arises when perceiving regular geometric shapes. This phenomenon is called dynamics, and by it you mean not physical, but visual movement.

Dynamics arises not only in the direction of the prevailing dimension (in height, width or depth), but also in the direction in which, in visual movement, a person perceives the development of space.

In contrast to dynamics, the relative absence of visual movement is called static. This means visual immobility of the form, a state of rest. A square and a plane and a cube as a volumetric shape can serve as examples of static shapes. Rectangles and parallelepipeds, in which one dimension is two or more times larger than the other, are examples of dynamic shapes.

Dynamics, arising in an elementary form in the simplest geometric forms, in the construction of a spatial composition acquires the importance of an important compositional means with which the artistic integrity of the composition can be achieved. The disorganized dynamics of elements, the inconsistency of their visual movements can create the disintegration of the composition into separate unrelated parts, that is, destroy its main quality - unity.

Among the important means of composition is tension - a property that characterizes the activity of the impact of the composition on a person.

The elements and concepts considered above are the types of composition, the main properties of the spatial form; some basic compositional means make up the richest palette for solving a variety of compositional problems.

Basics of architectural composition

Architectural composition is a system for creating a project and the object of architecture itself. When designing and constructing buildings, as you know, architects need to link three sides in a single harmonious composition: on the one hand, convenience and benefit (functional task), on the other, strength and efficiency (constructive task), and on the third, beauty of forms (artistic aesthetic task). The creation of the unity of the architectural composition from many components is the main task of architecture. To study the patterns of architectural composition, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the properties of architectural and spatial forms, which are objective. The main properties of volumetric-spatial forms (buildings and structures) are as follows: geometric appearance, position in space, size, mass. Additional properties include texture, light and color. 1. The geometric view is determined by the ratio of the dimensions of the form along the three coordinates of space (width, height, depth). If all three dimensions are relatively equal, the shape is volumetric (for example, a cube or a ball). If one dimension is much smaller than the other two, the shape is planar. If one dimension is much larger than the other two, the shape is linear. In addition, the type of form is determined by the stereometric nature of the outline of the surface of the figure. Due to this compositional elements can be divided into several groups. The first group includes forms formed by parallel-perpendicular planes (cube, parallelepiped). The second includes forms formed by planes and having non-perpendicular faces (pyramids, prisms, polyhedrons). The third group includes all bodies of revolution and shapes formed by curved surfaces (ball, cylinder, cone, etc.). The fourth group includes a variety of complex stereometric shapes with rectilinear and curved surfaces. In architectural composition, the first group of figures is most often used. 2. The position of the form in space in relation to the viewer can be horizontal, vertical, frontal, profile, closer, further, higher, below the viewer. 3. The size of an architectural form is a property of its length in height, width, depth in relation to the size of a person and in comparison with other adjacent forms. 4. The mass of the building in visual perception depends on the visual assessment of the amount of material of the architectural form. In artistic and compositional terms, mass is considered massive. The most massive are cubic and spherical dense forms, and less - hollow, flat and smooth. 5. Texture is the volumetric character of the surface of an architectural form, which is directly perceived by the viewer. At the same time, the texture can be considered the nature of the surface of various scales - from roughness to the degree of dissection of the plane of the facade of a multi-storey building. 6. Chiaroscuro. Light enables the viewer to perceive volume, surface and space. The direction of light at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizon and to the vertical plane most reveals the volume and texture of an architectural form. The role of lighting (natural and artificial) is very important in creating an artistic image of both exterior and interior. Natural light, penetrating into the interiors as a side or overhead light, creates a joyful mood, but dazzles in work and study rooms, in the interiors of temples it creates the impression of a symbolic divine glow. Artificial lighting of external forms of architecture is used at the level of street and main lighting and illumination of a number of historical monuments. In the interior, artificial lighting is found as a variety of lighting devices, which sometimes acquire an independent meaning, participating in solving a compositional problem. 7. Color in architectural compositions is the property of a surface to reflect or emit light of different spectral properties. It is characterized by hue (shades), saturation (degree of color brightness), lightness (surface reflectivity). In architecture, color is associated with the main compositional theme. Combining cold and warm colors, saturation and amount of color, you can illusoryly expand the space, create a feeling of spaciousness, or, conversely, bring the volumes that organize the space closer to the viewer. One of the important means of architectural composition is tectonics. Agreeing with the opinion of the famous architect A.K. Burov, we will consider tectonics as the result of "plastically developed, artistically meaningful construction." Tectonics is an artistic expression of the structural laws inherent in the structural system of a building. Tectonics is manifested in the mutual arrangement of parts of the building, its proportions, rhythmic structure, etc. The category of tectonics is of a historical nature. The main components of the architectural environment are space, the volume that forms this space, and the surface that forms the volume and space. On the basis of spatial arrangement of forms, and also depending on the nature of their perception by the viewer, there are three main types of volumetric-spatial composition: spatial, volumetric and frontal. Spatial composition is characterized by the dominance of space over the elements that form it. In such structures, perception evaluates primarily the quality of the spatial solution, and not the elements that organize this space. Volumetric forms and surfaces that form this space can develop along vertical, frontal or depth coordinates (in the latter case the composition is called depth-spatial). The sense of depth is enhanced when elements are introduced into the composition, dividing the space into a series of successive plans (for example, in Romanesque or Gothic temples). At the same time, the space itself is perceived when the viewer moves in the main direction of the development of this space. The volumetric composition is a shape evenly developed along three coordinates. It is perceived from all sides, when the viewer moves around it. The perception of the volumetricness of a form is influenced by: the appearance of its surface, the position and aspect of the forms relative to the viewer, the nature of the division of its surface and mass. If an architectural structure consists of several isolated volumes, then variants of the dominant and non-dominant subordination of these volumes are possible. Frontal composition is characterized by development along two coordinates, horizontal and vertical. The frontal composition is perceived by the viewer when moving along it or towards it (for example, building facades). By types, the frontal composition can be different: the ratio of length and height along the front is close to equality, or in contrast with the predominance of horizontal or vertical coordinates. A vertically oriented façade looks more dynamic than a calm and balanced horizontal façade. The frontal composition can be symmetrical and asymmetric, one volume can dominate in it, subordinating other elements of the composition to itself, or the basis of the composition can be several volumes that are in nuanced relationships. The composition of any architectural structure has the features and characteristics of all three of its indicated types, with the dominance of one or another. But we must not forget that when determining the type of composition, the location of the viewer and, accordingly, his perception of this structure becomes decisive. For example, a building Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg, the architecture of K. Rossi is perceived from the side of the park, and especially from the side of the street, as an example of spatial composition. The theater building itself dominates this ensemble, thanks to its location and volumetric composition. At the same time, the volumetric composition perceived when moving around the theater on each of the four facades is an example of a frontal composition based on symmetry. In the solution of the theater's interior, we also see a complex spatial composition, consisting of several internal spaces, obeying the functional idea of ​​a theatrical building with the dominance of the auditorium space. In the history of architecture, there are cases of subsequent rebuilding of buildings that change the original compositional ideas. For example, the building of the Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg was conceived as a frontal composition, with an emphasis on the main facade, organizing a vast area in front of the building. Later, a garden was laid out on the square, which partially covered the facade, and at the beginning of the 20s of the twentieth century, propylaea were erected in front of the building, forming, together with the alley leading to the Lenin monument and the main facade, a deep-spatial composition. The appearance of a building (exterior) largely depends on the interior space (interior) and town-planning conditions (ensemble). The interior depends on the functional purpose of the building and is determined by the features of its structures. There are different schemes for the composition of the interior: 1) the hall - all the main functions of the building are concentrated in one room (temples, supermarkets); 2) centric - a grouping of small rooms around the main, large (theaters, concert halls); 3) suite - the premises are adjacent to each other with doorways located along the same axis (palaces, exhibition halls); 4) corridor - premises are located on one or both sides of the corridor (educational, office buildings); 5) sectional - the composition consists of several isolated rooms-sections (sectional residential buildings); 6) mixed - hall, centric, suite compositions form a single, integral interior. One of the important problems in creating an artistic image of architecture is the ratio of exterior and interior, the problem of architectural mass and space. It has different solutions: correspondence, dominant, contrast, etc. However, in all cases, the artistic solution of the interior should contribute to the disclosure and identification of the idea conceived in architecture. An ensemble in architecture is a collection of buildings and the surrounding environment, brought to unity and given a certain artistic appearance. An ensemble does not always appear immediately, on the basis of a single concept. Sometimes it has been created over a long period of time, by different architects, in different historical styles. But he has artistic unity, integrity and harmony. Ensembles are urban, suburban and park. According to T.L. Kilpe, the spatial composition of the ensembles can be of several types: depth-spatial perspective, revealed along a square or street; an enclosed space bounded by greenery or buildings; free space without strict boundaries; a panorama from high points of view, on embankments, etc., where the silhouette of the building matters. One of the main methods of building an architectural ensemble is the organization of its compositional dominants. They can be buildings that stand out for their large size and expressive architectural appearance, historical monuments and monuments, centers of squares. At the same time, it is important to correctly measure all parts of the ensemble and to determine clear relationships between free territory and buildings.

→ Architectural design

Basic concepts of architectural composition, means of artistic expression

In order to combine all the various requirements for architectural works into an integral organism - a building, a complex of buildings, a city, to give them the necessary emotional expressiveness, an architect must master the skill of composition.

Composition (from Lat. Compositio - composing, joining, linking) refers to the construction of a work of art, due to its content and purpose and largely determines its perception. Composition is the most important organizing element of any art form, giving the work of unity and integrity.

An architectural composition is a certain regular arrangement and combination of all external and internal elements of a building, harmoniously coordinated with each other and forming a single whole. The logical arrangement of several or many buildings in combination with the external space also constitutes an even more complex composition - an ensemble.

Thus, in a broad sense, composition is understood as the artistic structure of an architectural work, an artistically expressive system of forms arising from a specific content and revealing a certain ideological and artistic concept. Without knowledge and correct use of the principles of composition, it is impossible to identify the idea of ​​a work.

The architectural composition is based on the laws of art and science, determined in each case by specific functional, aesthetic and technical and economic requirements. The formula - to build conveniently, firmly, economically and beautifully, which expresses the tasks of architecture, also determines the foundations of architectural composition, which is thus the embodiment of the unity of form and content. The purpose of architectural composition is to achieve this unity.

The various requirements for architectural structures sometimes conflict with each other. So, the need in some case of using expensive finishing materials contradicts the economy, the planned volumetric-spatial solution does not fit into the existing environment, the desire to create large free spaces without intermediate supports complicates the design solution, etc. The task of the composition is to reconcile all the contradictions. After all, the same building can be solved by different compositional techniques... The skill of an architect lies in finding the best one. Talent and intuition play an important role in this.

At the same time, in order to master the skill of composition, an architect needs to know its laws, which are the basis of architectural literacy. In architecture, as well as, for example, in literature, where knowledge of grammar does not make any person a writer or poet, but for literary creation this knowledge is necessary.

The theory of architectural composition is part of the general architectural science. Its content is the study of the patterns of the structure of the form (shaping). It forms, as it were, a transitional step from general theory to practice, skill, and creative mastery.

The patterns studied in the theory of composition are called categories or elements of composition. These categories include: volumetric-spatial structure, tectonics, means of harmonization (symmetry and asymmetry, rhythm, proportions, scale, contrast and nuance, etc.).

Volumetric-spatial structure and tectonics are the main, primary categories of architectural composition, directly related to the functional orientation and constructive structure of an architectural work. These two interrelated categories - space and the shell that forms it - are inseparable in works of architecture.

Symmetry and asymmetry, rhythm, proportions and other means of harmonization serve for the artistic organization of the spatial form. With their help, it is brought into line with the characteristics and psychophysiological laws of human perception. And if the first two categories are specific to architectural works, the means of harmonization are also used in other types of arts - graphics, painting, sculpture.

All categories and means of composition can only be considered in isolation from each other. In reality, all these properties of the form do not appear in their pure form, they are all interconnected and, manifesting themselves in the most diverse combinations, influence each other. By varying these combinations, the architect can somehow change the emotional expressiveness of the form in accordance with his idea.

The main law of the theory of composition is the law of the unity of the content and form of an architectural work, the law of the harmonious unity of all its parts. If there is unity, that is, the integrity of the composition, there is no unity - there is no composition. One of the main means of creating unity is the subordination of the parts of the composition, their mutual consistency, connection and harmony. The search for the unity of composition is the professional task of an architect.

Let's consider the main provisions of individual categories and elements of the composition.

Volume-spatial structure. Creating a spatial environment for human life is main feature distinguishing architecture from other arts. Various life processes require specific physical conditions and space in space. The organization of space in architecture is directly related to the purpose of its works. Therefore, it is natural to build a volumetric-spatial composition that grows on the basis of solving functional problems from the inside out. The material shell that bounds this space forms the volume of the building, and in combination with the internal space - the volumetric-spatial structure, composition.

In any type of building, the organization of space has its own characteristics. The volumetric-spatial structure of a multi-storey residential building, for example, consists of apartment cells, repeating vertically and horizontally. The spatial solution of the theater building is based on the large space of the auditorium and stage, which are adjacent to the service rooms. In classroom buildings, space is decided by repetitive classrooms, etc.

The shape of the volume of a building, as a rule, depends on its interior space. At the same time, even for buildings of the same purpose, there is no one, obligatory for all cases, reception of a volumetric-spatial composition, since its choice is dictated not only by function, but also by many other circumstances.

The specific location of the building has a great influence - urban conditions, architectural environment, landscape, climate. The choice of the volumetric-spatial structure also depends on the construction equipment and the economy. In some cases, the ideological and artistic content of the building acquires decisive importance. At the same time, the construction of the volume of the building, its general form and details serve to solve the special problem of creating an artistic image.

In this regard, the complete adequate correspondence of the form of the volume and the internal space of the building is not an absolute law of architecture. And this is confirmed by many examples from the history of architecture.

In theory, three general view volumetric-spatial composition.

Frontal composition is characterized by the fact that all its elements are located along two frontal coordinates, i.e. in width and height. The location in depth has a subordinate meaning - it is physically small. Building facades can have such a composition. It is designed for viewing from one side and is typical for buildings located in a row of streets.

A volumetric composition is characterized by the fact that its elements are located in three coordinates - width, height and depth. The volumetric composition is used for detached buildings designed for viewing from all points of view.

The deep-spatial composition is characterized by the presence of space in which the depth coordinates are decisive. Such a compositional construction can refer to either one or a group of buildings.

There are two main types of deep space: internal, i.e. interior, and external, formed by buildings and landscape, i.e. architecture of ensembles.

The frontal and volumetric compositions are included in the developed deep-spatial composition as its constituent parts. Thus, all three types of composition in many cases can take place in one architectural work and their selection is therefore somewhat arbitrary.

The organization of the volumetric-spatial structure is the first stage in the process architectural creativity... The volumetric-spatial structure is the basis for the further development of the entire composition.

Tectonics. The word tectonics - tek-tonikos Greek origin and in translation means "related to construction". Tectonics is one of the most complex means of expressiveness and organization of form in architecture.

Any architectural concept is carried out by certain technical means. Each structure takes on one form or another and becomes a material reality only in the structure. The structural system, which is understood as the relationship between the bearing and the bearing elements - walls, columns, floors, constitutes the basis of the building. However, the design itself is not yet an architecture. Only artistically comprehended and developed plastically, it turns into an architectural form.

True identification and embodiment in architectural forms of the nature of the structural-spatial system of a structure, the interaction of its main elements, is called tectonics in architecture. A plastically developed structural system, embodied in architectural forms, is called a tectonic system.

Consequently, tectonics figuratively reveals the unity of design and architectural and artistic form, shows the reflection in it of the objective laws of the work of a structure and material for compression, tension, bending, artistic expression of strength, stability, balance.

With the help of the artistic expressiveness of the form, the architect can emphasize the work of the structure, and for this he must understand and feel the peculiarities of the structure, clearly “see” the direction and nature of the efforts in each of its elements.

The Greek order can be cited as an illustrative example of the transition of a structure into a tectonic system (Fig. 1).

The original most ancient post-and-beam structure, made, as it is supposed, first in wood and then in stone, was determined only by the laws of statics. This system performed well its function of carrying loads, but lacked artistic expression. Since ancient times, this system began to undergo plastic processing. But Greek architects achieved particular perfection in this, who created a perfect tectonic form on the basis of the post-beam structure - an order, which clearly reflects the static essence of the post-beam structure and gives a figurative expression of the work of its material - stone.

A vertical support expanding from below - a column - reflects the increase in load from top to bottom. The capital clearly emphasizes the place where the load is transferred from the architrave beam to the column; it seems to calmly, but with full tension of forces, perceives the load. This tension is emphasized by the elastic line of echinus in the Doric order. The vertical curve that forms the columns - entasis, flutes - all elements of the order are aimed at visual identification of the static essence of this system.

Rice. 1.1. Greek Doric order. Parthenon

The formation of tectonic forms is a complex historical process that reflects the social and material laws of the development of society. With the development of construction technology and science, the use of new building materials, new tectonic concepts are gradually being developed.

At the same time, the socio-political system and the associated ideological and artistic design of the work of architecture have a huge impact on the nature of the interpretation of tectonic systems. This means that the tectonic structure of architectural works contains the possibility of their artistic figurative expressiveness.

So, in Egypt, religious buildings embodied the religious and political ideas of the glorification and deification of the power of the Pharaoh and the humiliation of man. This was achieved by deliberate exaggeration of the mass and visual severity of the material. Huge stone columns of Egyptian temples almost crowded out space, heavy pylons framing the entrance, artistically interpreted carved from one colossal stone incommensurate with man. Religious ideas embodied in Gothic architecture led to the opposite phenomenon - the ultimate visual relief of stone forms, which seemed to "float" and "dissolve" in an infinite space (Fig. 2.). This example shows how one and the same material - stone - can be the basis of architectural forms that are opposite in their artistic expressiveness.

In the centuries-old architectural and construction practice, the main structural systems were formed - wall, post-and-beam, vaulted, which were gradually embodied in more or less stable (permanent) tectonic systems.

Gradually evolving and improving, the main tectonic systems have been used for many centuries and were the basis for the development of various architectural styles. Thus, the wall system played an important role in the architecture of Ancient Rome, the Renaissance and in all subsequent periods of the development of architecture. The post-and-beam system was used in Ancient egypt, Greece, Rome. The vaulted system is widely reflected in the architecture of Rome, Byzantium, Romanesque, Gothic, Old Russian architecture. All of these systems are widespread in today's architecture.

In various historical epochs, tectonic systems, developing and deepening, are sometimes embodied in completely new architectural forms. Suffice it to compare the massive walls of Renaissance structures with the light wall structures of modern buildings or the heavy vaulted system of the Roman or Romanesque architecture with modern spatial systems of shell vaults.

However, the process of development and use of tectonic laws, like any development process, does not go smoothly. So, in antique greece, during the heyday of the Gothic in Western Europe, in Ancient Russia, the formation of architectural forms took place in close dependence on the physical and mechanical properties of materials and structures. In other periods, along with true tectonics, examples appear when architectural forms break away from the structural basis of a building and turn into a means of decoration.

Rice. 2. Examples of different tectonic interpretation of the order system: a-Egyptian temple; b-gothic cathedral

We can see this in many structures of Ancient Rome (for example, the Colosseum), in which the arched-wall constructive base, new for that time, was decorated with a mechanically imposed "order dress" (Fig. 3., a). Here, the order system from tectonic turned into a decorative one.

Renaissance architects, fascinated by the beauty of the ancient order and not being able to build temples-peripters (they were practically unnecessary), began to decorate their structures with the order (Fig. 3, b), where the supporting structure was a wall, and the order only "artistically" dismembered her. This process of destroying the tectonic meaning of the order was completed completely when the order was simply "depicted" by performing it on the wall in plaster.

Rice. 3. Examples of decorative interpretation of the order system: a-Colosseum in Rome; b-Palazzo Rucellai in Florence

The atectonicity of forms manifested itself in structures modern architecture... In our country, this is observed in some examples of architecture of the 40s - early 50s, when the order often turned into a means of decoration without any connection with the material and construction.

Currently, more advanced structural systems are used in construction, based on new knowledge about materials and new methods for calculating structures. But the relationship between design and form is too complex for the modern development of construction technology to immediately give rise to new architectural forms. Hence the possible mistakes of modern architecture. However, now we can already say that the development of architecture is on the right track.

Rice. 4. Development of tectonic interpretation of the wall structural system:
a - stone (Palazzo Medici in Florence); b - large-panel (typical residential building)

Let's try to trace how tectonic systems are gradually changing - wall, post-and-beam, vaulted - and how new architectural forms are born on this basis.

The ancient stone wall is massive, therefore the tectonic expressiveness of this structure was achieved by its plastic development. Vertical and horizontal protrusions, niches, volumetric framing contributed to the perception of its three-dimensionality. Such walls are characterized by visual weighting downward, achieved by the use of various textures and sizes of facing or structural materials (for example, rustication - (Fig. 4, a). For such walls, a protruding base is required, which plays the role of a base that perceives their mass.

The thin light wall of modern panel buildings cannot have any protrusions. Interpreted as a thin membrane, it is uniform throughout the entire plane of the facade, therefore its architectural expressiveness, its proportional and rhythmic structure are created not by plastic, but almost graphically - by the location of the seams between the panels, the location of the openings, the alternation of glass ribbons and panels, sometimes the use of color.

For modern buildings, a basement that does not protrude, as before, but sinks in relation to the plane of the wall. Structurally, this is explained by the fact that the foundations of such buildings, which bear a relatively small mass and are made of durable materials, have a small thickness. Visually, this further emphasizes the lightness of the wall.

A completely different meaning and a new shape is given to the cornice, which in modern buildings is either replaced by a parapet (with an internal drain), or is an element of a covering, not a wall (Fig. 4, b).

For the tectonic expressiveness of the walls of panel buildings, the constructive nature of the panels, which can be load-bearing, self-supporting, hinged, is of great importance. Large stained-glass windows, which are widely used in modern public buildings, are also a kind of screen-wall that requires its own special tectonic expressiveness.

In the process of development, the post-girder tectonic system known from ancient times was fundamentally transformed.

The post-and-beam structure, which was finally developed in Greece, architecturally expressed in the classical order, is a system of load-bearing (posts) and carried (beams) elements. In order to visually express the work of a stone column, rigidly fastened to the base and carrying a heavy stone beam freely resting on it, the Greek architect, as we have already seen, gave it a form expanding downward and completed it with a capital.

The modern post-and-beam system made of reinforced concrete has fundamentally changed. Reinforced concrete is a strong and bending material that has made it possible to significantly reduce the dimensions of the structural sections. It has already become necessary to rigidly attach a light thin reinforced concrete girder to a column-not-pillar, which is now hinged at the base. This design is essentially a new static system - the frame.

The redistribution of efforts, unloading the girder-beam and including the support-stand in the bending work, led to a radical change in the sections and shape of structural elements, made the use of a capital meaningless, which led to a new type of support tapering downward, which is widely used in modern architecture ( fig. 5). This shape fully corresponds to the bending stress, which increases from zero at the support to a maximum at the top point.

In addition, a stone beam that does not work well for bending could cover small spans and had a large height. In reinforced concrete working in bending, the span of the beam covering increases significantly and its height decreases immeasurably. Hence the new proportional relationships in architecture.

The vaulted tectonic system in its original state was used in ancient Eastern architecture, but it reached its full development in ancient Rome. The practical and ideological needs of the powerful Roman state necessitated the creation of new types of structures with a large interior space, and the discovery of a new building material - concrete, made it possible to create structures capable of overlapping these spaces. Such structures were vaults and domes. Very massive vaulted roofs of Roman buildings (Pantheon, Basilica of Maxentius) are supported by walls of enormous thickness.

The principles of constructing vaulted systems were subsequently developed by Byzantine, and then by Russian architects, who created perfect tectonic architectural forms. A great contribution to the development of the vaulted system was made by the Gothic, in the best structures of which a complex structural system is clearly revealed by plastic means.

A completely new constructive system is represented by modern spatial coverings - shells. It is in this structure that the remarkable properties of reinforced concrete are most fully used - spatial rigidity and its ability to take any shape. The invention of reinforced cement creates almost unlimited possibilities for the use of these properties.

Rice. 5. Development of tectonic interpretation of post-beam structural system:
a - made in wood; b, c - in stone; g - in reinforced concrete

The most characteristic of a reinforced concrete spatial structure is the plastic curved shape of the bearing surface. This form makes the material work in the most efficient way. The curvilinear shape creates rigidity of the structure with a minimum section thickness and makes it possible to bridge huge spans (Fig. 6).

The shape of the shell is determined by the internal stresses arising in it. However, these shapes can be very diverse: cylindrical, wavy-folded, hyper-boloid, undisturbed, etc. Not only unique designs, but also designs for mass construction can have a curved shape.

The development of modern spatial reinforced concrete structures is due to the need for the construction of structures with large internal spaces (halls for various purposes, stadiums, markets, train stations). The spatial coverings, with their light, bold outlines, give these buildings new aesthetic qualities, not only for the external volume, but also for the interior. Thus, the needs of society for certain types of buildings have an impact on the development of construction technology, on the development of new materials and structures, which in turn affect the formation and development of new tectonic systems.

Rice. 6. Development of tectonic interpretation of the vaulted structural system:
a - stone (Pantheon in Rome); b - reinforced concrete (Palace of Sports in Rome)

Harmonization means. Volumetric structure and tectonics are the main general categories of composition. In order to bring the composition into complete harmony, to create proportionality and harmony of the relationships of all its parts and details, to give it the most complete aesthetic expressiveness, it is necessary to apply some specific compositional means or, as they are called, harmonization means.

The means of harmonization contain the laws of shaping. However, the architect, creating an architectural form and building it in accordance with these laws, must take into account how this form will be perceived by a person. Understanding the relationship between the actual form of an object and its perception is of great importance for creative work architect. Below we will consider the means of harmonizing the volumetric-spatial form.

Symmetry and asymmetry are the simplest and clearest means of composition. It defines the basis for the construction of both the entire volumetric-spatial composition, and individual parts of the building and architectural details. The principle of symmetry and asymmetry is also used in the creation of architectural ensembles and planning complexes.

Symmetry is a strictly regular arrangement of identical elements relative to an axis or plane passing through the geometric center of a plane or volume. Vertical axes of symmetry are present in the composition of centric buildings (Fig. 7, a). Vertical planes of symmetry are present in the composition of individual buildings, ensembles, interiors. This symmetry is called mirror symmetry. In vertical and horizontal projections symmetry planes turn into axes (Fig. 7, b). In complex compositions, there may be several such axes, which in this case are subdivided into major and minor (Fig. 7, c).

In works of architecture, absolutely strict symmetry is rare, which is explained by the complex functional content of buildings. In most cases, the so-called partially broken symmetry is used - dissymmetry (for example, with a strictly symmetrical plan in terms of an asymmetric arrangement of some rooms or with a symmetrical facade, a free arrangement of parts) (Fig. 8).

With an asymmetric construction of the composition, its individual elements are located so that the axes of symmetry are completely or partially absent. At the same time, the uneven in size and different in shape parts are arranged so that they create visual balance, thereby preserving the unity of the composition (Fig. 9).

In complex compositions, symmetry and asymmetry usually go hand in hand. The choice of this or that method of constructing a composition in each specific case depends on the functional characteristics of the building, its location (the importance of the building in the ensemble of a square, street, etc.) and the ideological and artistic concept.

The symmetrical technique creates a static composition, it helps to express severity, solemnity, splendor. In architectural practice, formalistic methods are sometimes encountered, when inappropriate functional content is forcibly squeezed into a symmetrical composition for the sake of its false "representativeness".

In modern architecture, the asymmetric technique of composition is widespread. This is explained by the desire for the most limited connection between the form and the complex functional content of modern buildings and the desire to give the composition dynamism, a freer pictorial character, to bring it as close to nature as possible.

Rice. 7. The main types of symmetrical compositions:
a - Villa Rotunda in Vicenza; b - the building of the stock exchange in Leningrad; в - the old building of the library named after V. I. Lenin in Moscow

Rice. 8. An example of dissymmetry in an architectural composition (Karelian wooden hut)

Meter and rhythm in architecture are manifested as regular repetition and alternation of elements (architectural details, forms, volumes). This alternation is used as a specific composition tool for both individual buildings and ensembles. There are two types of repeatability - metric and rhythmic. Its simplest form - meter - is based on the alternation of identical elements with equal intervals between them (Fig. 10, a). A more complex type of repetition - rhythm - is based on a regular change in forms and intervals. This order, in addition to repetition, is characterized by a change in some properties of elements and intervals: an increase or decrease in their number, size, shape, etc. (Fig. 10, b). Meter and rhythm in architecture often appear in unity, forming even more complex - metro-rhythmic combinations (Fig. 10, c).

All these patterns act primarily as a direct expression of the functional and structural features of the building. At the same time meter and rhythm are powerful means of artistic expression. Metric construction characterizes the calm, static composition; rhythmic - expresses directionality, dynamism (Fig. 11).

In modern construction of mass buildings by industrial methods, the metric structure plays a significant role in the composition. An example is the metric arrangement of apartments in residential buildings, school classrooms, hospital wards, work premises of various institutions and laboratories. Their internal structure is emphasized by the alternation of identical structural elements - wall panels, window openings, etc. Against this uniform background, rhythmic accents are often created, linking the elements of the metric series into an integral composition. Such accents are balconies, bay windows, stairwell openings, entrances.

Rice. 9. An example of an asymmetrical composition (Cathedral of the Mirozh Monastery in Pskov)

Rice. 10. Scheme of metric and rhythmic arrangement of elements: a - metric rows; b - rhythmic rows; b-metro-rhythmic combinations

Metric rhythmic patterns are widely used in complex ensemble buildings, where metric and rhythmic rows are no longer formed by separate architectural elements, but by groups of buildings and the space between them.

Rhythmic patterns are associated with all means of composition, including the principle of symmetry. Thus, the rhythmic arrangement of elements is more often inherent in buildings that have a clearly expressed compositional center. As a rule, these are large public buildings. Here, the technique of symmetry emphasizes their significance, and the rhythmic growth towards the center creates a visual movement towards the entrance to the building.

Proportions are one of the main compositional means used in architecture to bring the ratios of all parts of a structure into visual harmony. Proportion is called a certain ratio, proportionality of parts with each other and with the whole, which is a means of achieving unity. This refers to the proportionality of linear dimensions (height, width), areas and volumes. Embracing the entire structure or ensemble, the proportions in their unity form a proportional structure.

Just like other means of architectural composition, a proportional structure is inseparable from the material basis of a structure, contributing to the artistic identification of its specific qualities. The nature of proportional relationships in a building is determined by specific conditions and requirements - functional, technical, economic. At the same time, proportions are one of the most important means of creating an architectural and artistic image. With their help, monumentality, solemnity, or, conversely, modest can be expressed. spine, simplicity; by using one or another proportional order, a building can be given visual lightness or heaviness. Thus, work on proportions is not an isolated abstract process, but one of the sides of the general design process aimed at solving specific problems.

Proportion issues have been developed since antiquity. Architects of Ancient Greece and Rome, famous architects of the Renaissance, many Western European scientists, Russian architects were engaged in research in this area. Interest in this issue is not waning at the present time. In modern architecture, which is based on the simplicity of volumes devoid of decorative ornaments, proportional harmonization of the composition takes on a leading role in matters of artistic expression.

Let us dwell on the principle of the basic proportional systems that are important in the practical work of the architect.

The simplest is the modular system of proportions, which is characterized by the multiplicity of all dimensions of the structure to some single value, called the modulus. This value serves as a measure of all parts of the structure and is used to create proportionality, i.e. complete mutual correspondence of the sizes of the building and its parts.

The modular system of proportions underlies the classical architectural orders, where the lower diameter (Greek orders) or the radius (Roman orders) of the column is taken as the modulus. All dimensions of structures - the height of the columns and the distance between them, the height of the entablature and its parts, the overall dimensions of the building and all details - are measured by this module, i.e. the number of radii or column diameters that fit into them.

Rice. 11. An example of metro-rhythmic and rhythmic constructions in architecture:
a - library to them. Saltykov-Shchedrin in Leningrad; b - Moscow State University on Lenin Hills

The introduction of a system of modular relations facilitated the process of erecting buildings from individual elements (stone blocks) and breaking them down on the site. Appearing as a consequence of practical necessity, the module in antique architecture acquired a great artistic meaning. The modular system made it possible to establish simple, easily perceived relationships, which are widely used in architectural and construction practice.

In modern mass construction, a modular system of proportions is a necessary prerequisite for the typification and unification of all building elements and dimensions of buildings.

Another system of proportions is based on the principle of geometric similarity. This system has a wide application, since in practical work the architect has to deal precisely with the geometric, linear expression of various mathematical dependencies.

Rice. 12. Examples of the similarity of linear elements in architecture: a-division of segments into similar parts; b - division of the entablature into similar parts (the Pantheon in Rome); division of the facade and its elements into similar parts (Palazzo Strozzi in Florence)

A proportional relationship exists both between linear, vertically located building elements, and between vertical and horizontal elements. The first dependence can be expressed by the geometric similarity of segments, the second - by the similarity of rectangular figures. The similarity of segments and figures connects individual elements in a certain relationship, which brings them into a single harmonious whole. Already in its simplest expression - the geometric similarity of segments - proportion illustrates the relationship, interdependence and strict consistency of its members.

In fig. 12 shows a diagram of the graphical dependence of two linear elements, dismembered in the relation: A: a = B: b = C: c, and examples of such proportional dependence in some architectural monuments. The proportional dependence observed with the similarity of rectangles, expressed by the ratio A: B-a: b, is graphically shown in Fig. 13. A sign of similarity here is the parallel or perpendicular arrangement of the diagonals of the correspondingly located figures. This property of the diagonals makes it possible to practically build and find proportional relationships in the design and study of architectural works.

In fig. 14 shows possible proportioning schemes and examples of proportional dependence in different architectural structures.

Geometric connections are clearly visible in the proportions of ancient Russian architecture. Scientific research in this area shows the connection between the practical methods of construction and the aesthetic views of that time. The principle of geometrically conjugated standards of length is reflected in ancient Russian measures, the peculiarity of which lies in the relationship with the structure and articulations of the human figure

Rice. 13. Similarity of figures as a graphic expression of proportional dependence

So, the maximum range of arms to the sides defined the concept of "measured fathom", which is divided into four "cubits"; the greatest grip with the hand formed the "span" measure, which fits twice in the length of the elbow (Fig. 15, a). Thus, the “measured fathom” was a convenient, as it were, folding, measure based on sequential division in half. A double (double) step, called "straight or Tmutarakan fathom", was also widespread in Russian measures of the Middle Ages.

Along with these natural measures, researchers of ancient Russian architecture discovered measurements derived from them: a diagonal of a square with a side equal to a double step, which is called "oblique Novgorod fathom", a diagonal of a square with a side in a "measured fathom", called a "great oblique fathom", etc. .d. (Fig. 15, b).

This system of measures is reflected in the proportions of ancient Russian architecture. Using it, Russian builders involuntarily linked the dimensions and proportions of their buildings with the dimensions and articulations of the human figure, which gave them special harmony and artistic expressiveness.

Rice. 14. Examples of proportional dependence in architectural structures based on the similarity of figures:
a - possible types of proportional relationship; b - Erechtheion in Athens; c - The Faceted Chamber in the Moscow Kremlin

A special place among the various proportional systems is occupied by " golden ratio", Which was widely used by the architects of antiquity. During the Renaissance, it was considered "divine proportion". Researchers point to numerous examples of the manifestation of the "golden ratio" in nature (the structure of a tree, leaf, etc.), which explains the strength of the emotional impact of this proportional relationship on a person. The principle of constructing the "golden section" consists in dividing a segment in such a way that most of it is the average proportional value between the entire segment and its smaller part: a: b = b: (a - \ - b). The geometric construction of dividing a segment in this ratio is most easily carried out using a right-angled triangle with a leg ratio of 1: 2, where the larger leg, conventionally taken as a unit, is divided in a given ratio (Fig. 16). This attitude is irrational. Its sufficiently accurate expression is: a = 0.382; 6 = 0.618.

Rice. 15. Russian measures (according to I. Sh. Shevelev):
a - associated with the size of the human body; b - derivatives from them

The "golden section" can be found in the proportions of many architectural structures of different eras (Fig. 17).

As already mentioned, proportions are closely related to all other means of composition. The proportioning of the size of the building must be consistent with tectonic, large-scale and other laws. So, in the Parthenon, the proportion of the "golden section" is used in close connection with the tectonic features of this structure. The application of the same proportional regularity, but without connection with tectonics, leads to a complete violation of the overall harmony of the structure, although formally the "golden section" is present in it.

The proportion "golden ratio" formed the basis for some of the more modern proportional systems. The Soviet architect I. V. Zholtovsky, on the basis of an analysis of the architectural monuments of ancient Greece and the Italian Renaissance, deduced the theory of the "function of the golden section" (ratio 2: 5).

Rice. 16. Graphic construction of the proportion of the "golden section"

The French architect Le Corbusier created a complex theory of proportioning, which he called "Modulor". Taking the average dimensions of a human figure as the initial values, Corbusier built on the basis of the "golden ratio" a geometrically increasing series of values ​​that are intended to be applied to the entire surrounding man environment - from household items to city planning. The progressiveness of this theory lies, first of all, in the fact that it harmoniously combined the abstract mathematical properties of the "golden section" with the human principle.

The concept of proportionality, harmony is inextricably linked with our ideas about convenience and functional expediency. So, a room that has "good" proportions in terms of, is convenient for the life processes taking place in it. The proportional structure, therefore, cannot be considered abstractly, divorced from a concrete structure. The search for the best proportions should be carried out taking into account the material basis of the building. At the same time, the main factor of proportioning is the creation of harmonious consistency of the elements of the structure, the unity and proportionality of parts and the whole.

Many modern architectural forms created from reinforced concrete are very plastic, spatial, they do not have planes on which the classical theory of proportions was based (similarity of figures, the ratio of segments, etc.). The new theory of proportioning must also correspond to new architectural forms. The development of such a theory is an urgent problem.

In addition, one cannot fail to take into account that mathematical methods of proportioning are organically combined with the living intuitive side of creativity. In solving these complex problems, the latest advances in science - psychology, physiology, biophysics, etc. - should play an essential role.

Scale in architecture is a complex, multifaceted concept, much more capacious than the concept of "scale", which is an indicator of how many times the image on a drawing is smaller than its actual size.

Scale in architecture (sometimes the term "scale in architecture" is used in the same sense) is, firstly, the proportionality of a structure to a person and the environment, and secondly, a person's perception of the size and significance of this structure. Thus, scale in architecture is determined not only by proportionality, but also by an emotional assessment of the form. Commensurability with a person should be understood here not only as the ratio of architectural forms to the absolute dimensions of a person, but also as the degree of correspondence of the size of a structure to the purpose that a person gave it. In this case, the first aspect of the relationship is stable, the second changes along with the development of society.

A person's perception of the architectural scale of a structure or complex largely determines the most important features of their figurative structure. Depending on the figurative interpretation of the content, this or that scale can give the building an expression of monumentality or, conversely, intimacy.

Rice. 17. An example of dividing the facade in golden relations (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye)

The significance of the building, its large scale is not equivalent to its large size... The concepts of the scale and size of an architectural structure are not directly related, especially since the size itself is not an artistic quality.

Very often, a building that is small in absolute size has a large scale, it is said to be large in scale, and a large building can be of small scale. Suffice it to compare, for example, the small building of the mausoleum on Red Square in Moscow, designed majestically, on a large-scale, and the huge building of the Rossiya Hotel, whose large-scale structure is small, is insignificant.

What determines the large-scale structure of a structure in the design process? Scale, like all other means of composition, is a pattern arising from the material nature of architecture. The scale of architectural structures is determined by their functional purpose, place and significance in the ensemble of a street, square, city, the nature of the ideological and artistic concept. Structures and building materials have a great influence on the interpretation of scale.

Public buildings, as a rule, correspond to a somewhat enlarged, raised scale; the unique public buildings that play an organizing role in the ensemble are characterized by a majestic, monumental scale; residential buildings have a more modest, natural scale.

The formation of the large-scale expressiveness of a building is influenced by the scale of the architectural environment in which it will be located, and its significance in this environment. Depending on the specific conditions, the large-scale structure of the new structure must comply with the scale of the architectural environment or be opposed to it.

Scale can be a quality not only of a building or an ensemble, this quality is also inherent in large spatial architectural formations: squares, streets, districts, settlements. The formation of an architectural scale largely depends on natural factors (large water surfaces, mountains, etc.). Here, the large-scale system has its own laws, but is built on the same principles.

The building, designed in the corresponding large-scale structure, is not only harmonious, beautiful, it is expedient. If a large-scale structure does not correspond to the content of the building, its surroundings, we say that the building is not scaled, the scale is violated.

How is this or that large-scale expressiveness achieved, which affects the perception of scale? In the creation of a large-scale system, various artistic techniques: division of the volume of the building, plastic development of parts, texture of the material, color.

The dismemberment of the architectural volume horizontally and vertically enlarges it visually. A building dismembered by floor rods or tiers of pilasters will seem larger than a building of the same volume, but solved by a single technique - a smooth wall or an order covering the entire height. But its scale will not become larger, rather the opposite. Architectural divisions of the volume create the impression of great physical size, but they crush the scale. Thus, the bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow (Fig. 1.18, a), dissected by six tiers decorated with fine decor, seems to be higher than the bell tower of Ivan the Great in the Moscow Kremlin (Fig. 1.18, b), although it is 9 m lower than the latter. But Ivan’s bell tower Great, resolved in large undivided forms, is more majestic, monumental, large-scale.

The architects of ancient Greece, with simplicity and clarity of details, achieved the impression of stately monumentality. The Romans, by complication and modeling of details, sought to emphasize the physical grandeur of their structures.

All of the above does not mean that large-scale expressiveness has nothing to do with absolute dimensions. The corresponding large-scale structure can emphasize the small or, on the contrary, the grandiose dimensions of the building. The scale is most clearly revealed in the architectural elements directly related to the dimensions of the human figure: the dimensions of the steps of stairs, fences, windows and doors. These familiar building elements, which are relatively constant in size, are called scale indicators. They contribute to the correct perception of the size of the structure and bring it in line with the person, therefore "scale indicators" play a significant role in the interpretation of scale.

The concept of scale, as well as of other means of composition, changes, enriches and complements in the process of architecture development. Each era has its own shade of large-scale expressiveness, corresponding to the nature and level of development of society. The level of development of modern society - technical progress, urbanization, the global acceleration of the pace of all life processes, is reflected in the enlargement of the large-scale structure of architecture as a whole, and new building materials and construction methods contribute to the fact that the elements of buildings are enlarged, the details take on simple laconic forms.

Contrast and nuance is one of the brightest means of achieving artistic expression in architecture, which characterizes and reveals the degree of similarity or difference between certain properties of a structure.

Contrasting relationships emphasize the pronounced differences in these properties; nuanced relationships mean a very gradual, barely noticeable transition from one property to another.

In relations of contrast or nuance, there can be dimensions and shape (large and small horizontal and vertical, rectilinear and curved, simple and complex, massive and light), texture, color, illumination.

Rice. 18. The relationship between the absolute size of the building, architectural captivity and scale:
a - bell tower of the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow; b - Ivan the Great bell tower in the Moscow Kremlin

The reception of contrast or nuance cannot be artificially, formally assigned to a particular composition - it must be a consequence of the actual properties of the given object - functional, constructive, tectonic. Only in those cases when contrasting or nuanced relationships correspond to the logic of building a composition, they become a powerful means of emotional expressiveness. However, not all objective properties should be opposed - here the architect must be able to see correctly what should be emphasized for the specific purpose of identifying the main most significant for the general structure of a given composition.

The use of the technique of contrasting and nuanced relationships of a wide variety of properties (shape, size, texture, color) can be seen in the examples of many structures of ancient and modern architecture. It is widely used in the construction of streets, squares, modern neighborhoods, cities.

Light, color and texture of the material play a significant role in the process of architectural shaping. Conventionally, they are called additional means of harmonization, since they obey the main ones: proportional order, scale, rhythm, contrast and nuance.

The shape and relief of objects are perceived mainly due to the light falling on them, the gradations of the transition from light to shadow, called chiaroscuro. With changing direction and intensity of light, the same shape makes a different impression. Natural lighting is diverse; it changes with the time of year and day, depending on the climatic conditions and the environment (reflected light). All this must be taken into account in the design process. Light in the interior is of particular importance. In addition to its direct practical purpose, light can be used here as a powerful means of artistic expression.

Artificial lighting is of no less importance in architecture. With the onset of darkness, it comes into close contact with architecture: lamps, lanterns and spotlights illuminating streets, buildings, shop windows are lit, illuminated advertising flashes. Simultaneously with the solution of functional problems, artificial light is widely used to create decorative and artistic effects, to highlight certain aspects of the architectural space and individual buildings and structures. In this sense, the term "light architecture" is used.

The aesthetic tasks of organizing artificial interior lighting are inseparable from the need to create comfort conditions that meet the specifics of the structure. Here, the variety of possible solutions for artificial lighting is difficult to even enumerate.

The functions of color in an architectural composition are different. Color can reveal the tectonic structure of the structure, emphasize plastic, create additional rhythms, and add decorative accents. The use of color significantly sharpens the emotional perception of the form. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the specific conditions of construction. So, in the northern countries, where there are many cloudy days, it is logical to use a contrasting, saturated color of buildings; in the south, on the contrary, monochrome and less contrasting colors are appropriate. However, this provision is not absolute. In the history of architecture, there are also opposite examples.

Color is of fundamental importance in Russian architecture XVII-XIX her., where contrasting combinations of red and white, yellow and white colors reveal the compositional design and tectonic structure of structures, create vivid memorable images, enhancing their emotional impact.

The richest possibilities for interpreting the form are contained in the texture and texture of building materials, which are closely related to issues of tectonics.

In architecture, they often use the method of contrasting different materials (stone and wood, concrete and glass, etc.), as well as one material with a varied texture (roughly hewn and polished or polished stone, variously processed concrete). The variety of modern building materials - various concretes, metals and their alloys, ceramics, plastics, glass - should have the strongest impact on the development of architecture.

Synthesis of architecture with monumental and applied arts is an important element of the composition. At the same time, synthesis is called such an interaction of various arts in which each of them, acting with a certain degree of independence, at the same time becomes part of whole.

Monumental painting and sculpture, enriching the architectural form with plasticity and color, are at the same time capable of enhancing its ideological, artistic, figurative sound, and, if necessary, concretizing large social ideas expressed in works of architecture. In some cases, synthesis with monumental art can be decorative in nature. The concept of synthesis refers not only to the composition of individual buildings, but also to entire ensembles.

Applied art - furniture, wallpaper, draperies, lighting fixtures, chamber sculpture, painting and much more - is an integral part of the composition of interiors. They enter into organic interaction with architecture if they correspond to the spatial solution of the premises, their artistic conception and practical purpose.

The unity of the architectural composition. All compositional means, primary and secondary, participate in the creation of an architectural work in an organic relationship and are applied in accordance with specific conditions. These means and methods of composition are not invariable, they develop and change along with the development of the needs of society, its worldview, the introduction of new structures, materials and construction methods.

All elements and means of composition should be directed towards the formation of its integrity, the creation of artistic unity. There is no composition without unity. Unity is its main law and a prerequisite for its existence. This law is true for any kind of art. In architecture, it is more versatile. Here, unity is expressed in the organization of the form, which obeys function, the laws of beauty and the complex laws of human perception of forms.

The simple form itself is one. If the form consists of a large number identical elements, they are not perceived separately, but merge into a single form. If the functional processes for which the building is designed are complex, its form becomes more complicated. Answering the content, it can no longer be elementary, and in this case, in order to create the unity of the composition, the problem of subordination of parts arises.

Thus, the identification of the main and the secondary, the main and the subordinate in the composition is closely connected with the unity. Classic examples of such a subordination of forms are, for example, the Pashkov house (the old building of the V.I.Lenin library) in Moscow and the four-hundred-meter facade of the building of the Main Admiralty in Leningrad, in which there is a multi-stage complex subordination of compositional elements. If, with a complex form, each of its parts is perceived independently, independently of the whole, the unity of the composition disintegrates.

At the same time, architectural forms are a consequence of a certain content, they serve to solve certain functional, ideological, artistic and technical problems of construction. Therefore, the unity of the architectural composition should be understood not as an abstract unity of form, independent of the content, but as the unity of the composition, due to this content.

The various requirements for architectural structures, in many cases, partially exclude each other. The complex process of architectural and compositional creativity consists in bringing all requirements, including contradictory ones, to maximum unity and, putting forward the main thing, most importantly, to create harmony of the whole.